Dynamic nerve stimulation in combination with other eating disorder treatment modalities

ABSTRACT

A method for treatment of obesity or other disorders by electrical activation or inhibition of nerves is disclosed. This activation or inhibition can be accomplished by stimulating a nerve using an electrode. The method further comprises performing a surgical procedure and/or administering a weight loss drug.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This disclosure is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 11/422,019, filed Jun. 2, 2006, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to nerve stimulation for the treatment of medical conditions, which may be used together with obesity and other treatment modalities.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RELATED ART

Obesity is an epidemic in the U.S. with a prevalence of about 20 percent Annual U.S. healthcare costs associated with obesity are estimated to exceed $200 billion dollars. Obesity is defined as a body mass index (BMI) that exceeds 30 kg/m.sup.2. Normal BMI is 18.5-25 kg/m.sup.2, and overweight persons have BMIs of 25-30. Obesity is classified into three groups: moderate (Class I), severe (Class II), and very severe (Class III). Patients with BMIs that exceed 30 are at risk for significant comorbidities such as diabetes, heart and kidney disease, dyslipidemia, hypertension, sleep apnea, and orthopedic problems.

Obesity results from an imbalance between food intake and energy expenditure such that there is a net increase in fat reserves. Excessive food intake, reduced energy expenditure, or both may cause this imbalance. Appetite and satiety, which control food intake, are partly controlled in the brain by the hypothalamus. Energy expenditure is also partly controlled by the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system of which there are two branches, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic. The sympathetic nervous system generally prepares the body for action by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and metabolism. The parasympathetic system prepares the body for rest by lowering heart rate, lowering blood pressure, and stimulating digestion. Destruction of the lateral hypothalamus results in hunger suppression, reduced food intake, weight loss, and increased sympathetic activity. In contrast, destruction of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus results in suppression of satiety, excessive food intake, weight gain, and decreased sympathetic activity. The splanchnic nerves carry sympathetic neurons that supply, or innervate, the organs of digestion and adrenal glands, and the vagus nerve carries parasympathetic neurons that innervate the digestive system and are involved in the feeding and weight gain response to hypothalamic destruction.

Experimental and observational evidence suggests that there is a reciprocal relationship between food intake and sympathetic nervous system activity. Increased sympathetic activity reduces food intake and reduced sympathetic activity increases food intake. Certain peptides (e.g. neuropeptide Y, galanin) are known to increase food intake while decreasing sympathetic activity. Others such as cholecystokinin, leptin, enterostatin, reduce food intake and increase sympathetic activity. In addition, drugs such as nicotine, ephedrine, caffeine, subitramine, dexfenfluramine, increase sympathetic activity and reduce food intake.

Ghrelin is another peptide that is secreted by the stomach that is associated with hunger. Peak plasma levels occur just prior to mealtime, and ghrelin levels are increased after weight loss. Sympathetic activity can suppress ghrelin secretion. PYY is a hormone released from the intestine that plays a role in satiety. PYY levels increase after meal ingestion. Sympathetic activity can increase PYY plasma levels.

Appetite is stimulated by various psychosocial factors, but is also stimulated by low blood glucose levels. Cells in the hypothalamus that are sensitive to glucose levels are thought to play a role in hunger stimulation. Sympathetic activity increases plasma glucose levels. Satiety is promoted by distention of the stomach and delayed gastric emptying. Sympathetic activity reduces gastric and duodenal motility, causes gastric distention, and can increase pyloric sphincter, which can result in distention and delayed gastric emptying.

The sympathetic nervous system plays a role in energy expenditure and obesity. Genetically inherited obesity in rodents is characterized by decreased sympathetic activity to adipose tissue and other peripheral organs. Catecholamines and cortisol, which are released by the sympathetic nervous system, cause a dose-dependent increase in resting energy expenditure. In humans, there is a reported negative correlation between body fat and plasma catecholamine levels. Overfeeding or underfeeding lean human subjects has a significant effect on energy expenditure and sympathetic nervous system activation. For example, weight loss in obese subjects is associated with a compensatory decrease in energy expenditure, which promotes the regain of previously lost weight. Drugs that activate the sympathetic nervous system, such as ephedrine, caffeine and nicotine, are known to increase energy expenditure. Smokers are known to have lower body fat stores and increased energy expenditure.

The sympathetic nervous system also plays an important role in regulating energy substrates for increased expenditure, such as fat and carbohydrate. Glycogen and fat metabolism are increased by sympathetic activation and are needed to support increased energy expenditure.

Animal research involving acute electrical activation of the splanchnic nerves under general anesthesia causes a variety of physiologic changes. Electrical activation of a single splanchnic nerve in dogs and cows causes a frequency dependent increase in catecholamine, dopamine, and cortisol secretion. Plasma levels can be achieved that cause increased energy expenditure. In adrenalectomized anesthetized pigs, cows, and dogs, acute single splanchnic nerve activation causes increased blood glucose and reduction in glycogen liver stores. In dogs, single splanchnic nerve electrical activation causes increased pyloric sphincter tone and decrease duodenal motility. Sympathetic and splanchnic nerve activation can cause suppression of insulin and leptin hormone secretion.

First line therapy for obesity is behavior modification involving reduced food intake and increased exercise. However, these measures often fail and behavioral treatment is supplemented with pharmacologic treatment using the pharmacologic agents noted above to reduce appetite and increase energy expenditure. Other pharmacologic agents that can cause these affects include dopamine and dopamine analogs, acetylcholine and cholinesterase inhibitors. Pharmacologic therapy is typically delivered orally and results in systemic side effects such as tachycardia, sweating, and hypertension. In addition, tolerance can develop such that the response to the drug reduces even at higher doses.

More radical forms of therapy involve surgery. In general, these procedures reduce the size of the stomach and/or reroute the intestinal system to avoid the stomach. Representative procedures are gastric bypass surgery and gastric banding. These procedures can be very effective in treating obesity, but they are highly invasive, require significant lifestyle changes, and can have severe complications.

Experimental forms of treatment for obesity involve electrical stimulation of the stomach (gastric pacing) and the vagus nerve (parasympathetic system). These therapies use a pulse generator to stimulate electrically the stomach or vagus nerve via implanted electrodes. The intent of these therapies is to reduce food intake through the promotion of satiety and or reduction of appetite, and neither of these therapies is believed to affect energy expenditure. U.S. Pat. No. 5,423,872 to Cigaina describes a putative method for treating eating disorders by electrically pacing the stomach. U.S. Pat. No. 5,263,480 to Wernicke discloses a putative method for treating obesity by electrically activating the vagus nerve. Neither of these therapies increases energy expenditure.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

The invention includes a method for treating obesity or other disorders by electrically activating the sympathetic nervous system with a wireless electrode inductively coupled with a radiofrequency field. Obesity can be treated by activating the efferent sympathetic nervous system, thereby increasing energy expenditure and reducing food intake. Stimulation is accomplished using a radiofrequency pulse generator and electrodes implanted near, or attached to, various areas of the sympathetic nervous system, such as the sympathetic chain ganglia, the splanchnic nerves (greater, lesser, least), or the peripheral ganglia (e.g., celiac, mesenteric). Preferably, the obesity therapy will employ electrical activation of the sympathetic nervous system that innervates the digestive system, adrenals, and abdominal adipose tissue, such as the splanchnic nerves or celiac ganglia. Afferent stimulation can also be accomplished to provide central nervous system satiety. Afferent stimulation can occur by a reflex arc secondary to efferent stimulation. Preferably, both afferent and efferent stimulation can be achieved.

This method of obesity treatment may reduce food intake by a variety of mechanisms, including, for example, general increased sympathetic system activation and increasing plasma glucose levels upon activation. Satiety may be produced through direct effects on the pylorus and duodenum that cause reduced peristalsis, stomach distention, and/or delayed stomach emptying. In addition, reducing ghrelin secretion and/or increasing PYY secretion may reduce food intake. The method can also cause weight loss by reducing food absorption, presumably through a reduction in secretion of digestive enzymes and fluids and changes in gastrointestinal motility. We have noted an increased stool output, increased PYY concentrations (relative to food intake), and decreased ghrelin concentrations (relative to food intake) as a result of splanchnic nerve stimulation according to the stimulation parameters disclosed herein.

This method of obesity treatment may also increase energy expenditure by causing catecholamine, cortisol, and dopamine release from the adrenal glands. The therapy can be titrated to the release of these hormones. Fat and carbohydrate metabolism, which are also increased by sympathetic nerve activation, will accompany the increased energy expenditure. Other hormonal effects induced by this therapy may include reduced insulin secretion. Alternatively, this method may be used to normalize catecholamine levels, which are reduced with weight gain.

Electrical sympathetic activation for treating obesity is preferably accomplished without causing a rise in mean arterial blood pressure (MAP). This can be achieved by using an appropriate stimulation pattern with a relatively short signal-on time (or “on period”) followed by an equal or longer signal-off time (or “off period”). During activation therapy, a sinusoidal-like fluctuation in the MAP can occur with an average MAP that is within safe limits. Alternatively, an alpha sympathetic receptor blocker, such as prazosin, can be used to blunt the increase in MAP.

Electrical sympathetic activation for treating obesity is preferably accomplished without permitting a regain of the previously lost weight during the period in which the stimulator is turned off. This can be achieved by using a stimulation time period comprising consecutive periods in which each period has a stimulation intensity greater than the preceding stimulation period. In some embodiments, the stimulation intensity during the first stimulation period is set at about the muscle-twitch threshold. The consecutive stimulation periods are followed by a no-stimulation time period in which the stimulator remains off. We have discovered that subjects following treatment cycles described by the above pattern exhibit continued weight loss during the no-stimulation time period in which the stimulator is dormant.

We have also discovered that weight loss may be increased if the stimulation patterns are adjusted to prevent the body from compensating for the stimulation. This can be achieved by changing the maximum stimulation intensity reached during consecutive groups of stimulation periods, even in the absence of a no-stimulation time period.

A dynamic stimulation technique using ramp-cycling can be used on cranial nerves, the spinal cord, and/or other peripheral nerves, including those in the autonomic system and other motor and sensory nerves.

Electrical sympathetic activation can be titrated to the plasma level of catecholamines achieved during therapy. This would allow the therapy to be monitored and safe levels of increased energy expenditure to be achieved. The therapy can also be titrated to plasma ghrelin levels or PYY levels.

Electrical modulation (inhibition or activation) of the sympathetic nerves can also be used to treat other eating disorders such as anorexia or bulimia. For example, inhibition of the sympathetic nerves can be useful in treating anorexia. Electrical modulation of the sympathetic nerves may also be used to treat gastrointestinal diseases such as peptic ulcers, esophageal reflux, gastroparesis, and irritable bowel. For example, stimulation of the splanchnic nerves that innervate the large intestine may reduce the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, characterized by diarrhea. Pain may also be treated by electric nerve modulation of the sympathetic nervous system, as certain pain neurons are carried in the sympathetic nerves. This therapy may also be used to treat type II diabetes. These conditions can require varying degrees of inhibition or stimulation.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal; wherein the stimulation pattern comprises a stimulation intensity, an on time, and an off time; and wherein the stimulation pattern is configured such that the ratio of the on time to the off time is about 0.75 or less.

In some embodiments the stimulation pattern is configured such that the ratio of the on time to the off time is about 0.5 or less, and in some embodiments, about 0.3 or less.

In some embodiments the stimulation pattern is configured such that the on time is about two minutes or less. In some embodiments the stimulation pattern is configured such that the on time is about one minute or less. In some embodiments the stimulation pattern is configured such that the on time is about one minute or less and the off time is about one minute or more.

In some embodiments the stimulation pattern is configured such that the on time is greater than about 15 seconds. In some embodiments the stimulation pattern is configured such that the on time is greater than about 30 seconds.

Some embodiments further comprise varying the stimulation intensity over time, such as by increasing the stimulation intensity over time, sometimes daily.

Some embodiments further comprise creating a unidirectional action potential in the splanchnic nerve. This can involve creating an anodal block in the splanchnic nerve.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern for a first time period; wherein the stimulation pattern comprises a stimulation intensity and is configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal during the first time period; and reducing or ceasing the electrical activation of the splanchnic nerve for a second time period, such that the mammal loses net weight during the second time period.

In some embodiments the first time period is between about 2 weeks and about 15 weeks. In some embodiments the first time period is between about 6 weeks and about 12 weeks. In some embodiments the second time period is between about 1 week and about 6 weeks. In some embodiments the second time period is between about 2 weeks and about 4 weeks.

In some embodiments the electrically activating the splanchnic nerve comprises delivering a stimulation intensity to the splanchnic nerve that is approximately equal to the stimulation intensity required to produce skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity to the splanchnic nerve is at least about two times the stimulation intensity required to produce skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity to the splanchnic nerve is at least about five times the stimulation intensity required to produce skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity to the splanchnic nerve is at least about eight times the stimulation intensity required to produce skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern for a first time period within a period of about 24 hours, said stimulation pattern comprising a stimulation intensity and being configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal; and ceasing the electrical activation of the a splanchnic nerve for a second time period within the period of about 24 hours.

Some embodiments further comprise repeating the steps of electrically activating and ceasing the electrical activation. In some embodiments the first time period plus the second time period equals about 24 hours.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal; wherein the stimulation pattern comprises a stimulation intensity and a frequency; and wherein the frequency is about 15 Hz or greater, to minimize skeletal muscle twitching.

In some embodiments the frequency is about 20 Hz or greater. In some embodiments the frequency is about 30 Hz or greater.

In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is at least about 5 times the stimulation intensity required to produce skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is at least about 10 times the stimulation intensity required to produce skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal, and the frequency is about 20 Hz or greater.

Some embodiments include a method for producing weight loss, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern comprising a stimulation intensity and a frequency; and the stimulation pattern is configured to decrease absorption of food from the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in increased stool output in the mammal.

In some embodiments the frequency is about 15 Hz or greater, about 20 Hz or greater, and/or about 30 Hz or greater.

In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is at least about 5 times the stimulation intensity required to produce skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal.

In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is at least about 10 times the stimulation intensity required to produce skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal, and the frequency is about 20 Hz or greater.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising placing an electrode in proximity to a splanchnic nerve in a mammal above the diaphragm; and electrically activating the splanchnic nerve.

Some embodiments further comprise placing the electrode in contact with the splanchnic nerve. In some embodiments the electrode is helical or has a cuff, and further comprising attaching the electrode to the splanchnic nerve.

In some embodiments the placing is transcutaneous (that is, percutaneous). In some embodiments the placing is into a blood vessel of the mammal. In some embodiments the blood vessel is an azygous vein.

Some embodiments further comprise electrically activating the electrode and observing the patient for skeletal muscle twitching to assess placement of the electrode near the splanchnic nerve.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising placing an electrode into a blood vessel of a mammal, in proximity to a splanchnic nerve of the mammal; and electrically activating the splanchnic nerve via the electrode. In some embodiments the blood vessel is an azygous vein. In some embodiments the electrically activating is according to a stimulation pattern configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal; wherein the stimulation pattern comprises an on time; and wherein the on time is adjusted based on a blood pressure of the mammal.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal; wherein the stimulation pattern comprises an on time; and wherein the on time is adjusted based on a plasma PYY concentration and/or a plasma ghrelin concentration in the mammal.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern, wherein the stimulation pattern comprises a current amplitude; wherein the current amplitude is adjusted based on skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern, wherein the stimulation pattern comprises a current amplitude and a pulse width; wherein the current amplitude is increased to a first level at which skeletal muscle twitching begins to occur in the mammal; keeping the current amplitude at or near the first level until the skeletal muscle twitching decreases or ceases.

Some embodiments further comprise further increasing the current amplitude as habituation to the skeletal muscle twitching occurs. Some embodiments further comprise further increasing the current amplitude to a second level at which skeletal muscle twitching begins to recur, the second level being greater than the first level.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern, wherein the stimulation pattern comprises a current amplitude and a pulse width; wherein the current amplitude is increased to a first level at which skeletal muscle twitching begins to occur in the mammal; increasing the pulse width while keeping the current amplitude at about the first level or below the first level.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern, wherein the stimulation pattern comprises a current amplitude; wherein the current amplitude is increased to a first level at which skeletal muscle twitching begins to occur in the mammal; and sensing the muscle twitching with a sensor in electrical communication with the electrode.

In some embodiments the sensor is electrical. In some embodiments the sensor is mechanical.

Some embodiments further comprise further increasing the current amplitude as habituation to the skeletal muscle twitching implanting the sensor near the abdominal wall to sense abdominal muscle twitching.

Some embodiments include a device for treating a medical condition, the device comprising an electrode configured to stimulate electrically a splanchnic nerve in a mammal; a generator configured to deliver an electrical signal to the electrode; and a sensor in electrical communication with the generator, the sensor configured to sense muscle twitching; wherein the device is programmed to stimulate electrically the splanchnic nerve according to a stimulation pattern, wherein the stimulation pattern comprises a current amplitude and a pulse width; wherein the device is further programmed to increase the current amplitude to a first level at which skeletal muscle twitching begins to occur, and temporarily hold the current amplitude at or near the first level until the skeletal muscle twitching decreases or ceases.

In some embodiments the device is further programmed to increase the pulse width while keeping the current amplitude at or near the first level. In some embodiments the device is further programmed to increase the current amplitude as habituation to the muscle twitching occurs. In some embodiments the device is further programmed to increase the current amplitude to a second level at which skeletal muscle twitching begins to recur, the second level being greater than the first level.

In some embodiments the device is compatible with magnetic resonance imaging. In some embodiments the device comprises a nanomagnetic material.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern that is configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal without causing a substantial rise in a blood pressure of the mammal.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal according to a stimulation pattern that is configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal without causing prolonged skeletal muscle twitching in the mammal. Avoiding prolonged skeletal muscle twitching, in this context, refers to the fact that as soon as the stimulation threshold for muscle twitching is reached in this method (as the stimulation intensity is increased), current amplitude (or an analogous parameter, such as voltage) is held at or below this level until habituation to muscle twitching is reached by the animal. At that point, the current amplitude can then be increased until muscle twitching recurs at a higher stimulation intensity. Then the process is repeated, as a “ramp up” protocol, while minimizing skeletal muscle twitching.

Some embodiments include a method of stimulating a nerve, the method comprising: providing a first electrical signal to the nerve at a first stimulation intensity during a first portion of a first stimulation time period; providing a second electrical signal to the nerve at a second stimulation intensity during a second portion of a first stimulation time period; ceasing or substantially reducing said providing of said second signal during a first no-stimulation period; thereafter providing a third electrical signal to the nerve at a third stimulation intensity during a first portion of a second stimulation time period; providing a fourth electrical signal to the nerve at a fourth stimulation intensity during a second portion of a second stimulation time period; ceasing or substantially reducing said providing of said fourth signal during a first no-stimulation period.

In some embodiments, the second stimulation intensity is greater than the first stimulation intensity. In some embodiments, the fourth stimulation intensity is greater than the third stimulation intensity. In some embodiments the second stimulation intensity is greater than the first stimulation intensity, and the fourth stimulation intensity is greater than the third stimulation intensity. In some embodiments the third stimulation intensity is approximately equal to the first stimulation intensity.

In some embodiments the duration of the first no-stimulation period is approximately equal to the duration of the second no-stimulation period. In other embodiments the duration of the first stimulation period is approximately equal to the duration of the second stimulation period. In some embodiments the duration of the first portion of the first stimulation period is approximately equal to the duration of the second portion of the first stimulation period. In other embodiments the duration of the first portion of the second stimulation period is approximately equal to the duration of the second portion of the second stimulation period.

In some embodiments the mammal is a human. In other embodiments the nerve is the splanchnic nerve, while in other embodiments the nerve is a cranial nerve. In some embodiments the nerve is the vagus nerve. In other embodiments the nerve is located in the spinal cord. In some embodiments the nerve is in the autonomic nervous system. In some embodiments the nerve comprises motor fibers.

Some embodiments include a method of stimulating a nerve, the method comprising: providing a first electrical signal to the nerve during a first portion of a first stimulation time period, said first electrical signal having a stimulation intensity; thereafter providing a first plurality of additional electrical signals during a first plurality of additional portions of a first stimulation time period, each of said signals having a stimulation intensity that is greater than the stimulation intensity of the preceding signal; ceasing providing electrical signals to the nerve during a first no-stimulation period; providing a second electrical signal to the nerve during a first portion of a second stimulation time period, said second electrical signal having a stimulation intensity, thereafter providing a second plurality of additional electrical signals during a second plurality of additional portions of a second stimulation time period, each of said signals having a stimulation intensity that is greater than the stimulation intensity of the preceding signal; and ceasing providing electrical signals to the nerve during a second no-stimulation period.

Some embodiments include a method of stimulating a Splanchnic nerve in a mammal, the method comprising: electrically stimulating the nerve for a first time and at a first stimulation intensity; thereafter, electrically simulating the nerve for a second time and at a second stimulation intensity, said second stimulation intensity being greater than said first stimulation intensity; thereafter, providing a period during which stimulation at the nerve is absent or substantially less than the second stimulation intensity.

Some embodiments include duration of the period configured to minimize weight gain or maximize weight loss in the mammal during the period. Other embodiments further comprise electrically stimulating the splanchnic nerve at least one additional time between the first time and the second time.

In some embodiments the second stimulation intensity is about 1% to about 10,000% greater than the first stimulation intensity. In some embodiments the second stimulation intensity is about 2% to about 1,000% greater than the first stimulation intensity. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is about 4% to about 500% greater than the first stimulation intensity. In some embodiments the second stimulation intensity is about 8% to about 100% greater than the first stimulation intensity. In some embodiments the second stimulation intensity is about 10% to about 50% greater than said first stimulation intensity.

In some embodiments the second stimulation intensity is about 15% to about 30% greater than the first stimulation intensity. In some embodiments the second stimulation intensity is about 20% greater than the first stimulation intensity. In some embodiments the first stimulation intensity is about equal to the threshold for muscle twitch in the mammal.

In some embodiments the mammal is a human.

In some embodiments the first time is between about 30 seconds and about 300 days. In other embodiments the first time is between about one minute and about 100 days. In some embodiments the first time is between about five minutes and about 50 days. In some embodiments the first time is between about 30 minutes and about 30 days. In some embodiments the first time is between about one hour and about seven days. In some embodiments the first time is between about four hours and about four days. In some embodiments the first time is between about six hours and about 36 hours. In some embodiments the first time is between about 20 hours and about 28 hours. In some embodiments the first time is about 24 hours. In some embodiments the second time is between about 30 seconds and about 300 days. In some embodiments the second time is between about one minute and about 100 days. In some embodiments the second time is between about five minutes and about 50 days. In some embodiments the second time is between about 30 minutes and about 30 days. In some embodiments the second time is between about one hour and about seven days. In some embodiments the second time is between about four hours and about four days. In some embodiments the second time is between about six hours and about 36 hours. In some embodiments the second time is between about 20 hours and about 28 hours. In some embodiments the second time is about 24 hours. In some embodiments the first time is approximately equal to said second time. In some embodiments the period is between about 30 seconds and about 300 days. In some embodiments the period is between about one minute and about 100 days. In some embodiments the period is between about five minutes and about 50 days. In some embodiments the period is between about 30 minutes and about 30 days. In some embodiments the period is between about one hour and about 15 days. In some embodiments the period is between about one day and about ten days. In some embodiments the period is between about two days and about seven days. In some embodiments the period is between about three days and about five days. In some embodiments the period is about four days.

In some embodiments, the electrical stimulation of nerves can be combined with one or more other eating disorder treatment or prevention modalities. In some embodiments, the eating disorder is obesity. In other embodiments, the eating disorder is overeating or binge eating. In some embodiments, the eating disorder is food addiction.

In some embodiments, a method of preventing eating disorders or treating eating disorders comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve and treating the mammal with the one or more other eating disorder modalities. In some embodiments, a method of treating or preventing eating disorders comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve and performing a surgical procedure. In some embodiments, a method of treating or preventing eating disorders comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve and administering a weight loss drug. In some embodiments, a method of treating or preventing eating disorders comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve, performing a surgical procedure, and administering a weight loss drug.

In some embodiments, a method comprises electrically stimulating the splacnchnic nerve and administering a weight loss composition configured to reduce body weight of the mammal. In some embodiments, the combination of the electrical stimulation of the splanchnic nerve and the weight loss composition results in increased energy expenditure and/or decreased food intake, thereby resulting in decreased body weight.

In some of these embodiments, the weight loss composition comprises one or more appetite suppressants. In some embodiments, an appetite suppressant is a noradrenergic agent. In other embodiments, an appetite suppressant is a serotonergic agent. In other embodiments, the appetite suppressant is a adrenergic/serotonergic agent. In some embodiments, the appetite suppressant comprises one or more selected from phenylpropanolamine, phentermine, fenfluramine, dexfenfluramine, fluoxetine, sibutramine.

In some embodiments, the weight loss composition comprises one or more thermogenic agents. A thermogenic agent may be a sympathomimetic. Some nonlimiting examples of sympathomimetics include ephedrine, caffeine, and salicin. In other embodiments, a thermogenic agent may be a selective Beta 3-adrenergic agonist.

In some embodiments, a weight loss composition comprises a digestive inhibitor. In some embodiments the digestive inhibitor is a lipase inhibitor. In some embodiments, the lipase inhibitor is tetrahydrolipostatin (Orlistat, Xenical).

In some embodiments, a weight loss composition comprises a cannabinoid antagonist. In some embodiments, the cannabinoid antagonist blocks the CB1 receptor site and thereby reduces food intake or increases energy expenditure. In some embodiments, a cannabinoid anatagonist comprises Rimonabant.

In some embodiments, the weight loss composition comprises an anatagonist of a hormone or hormone receptor that increases food intake. In some embodiments, the hormone is one or more selected from Neuropeptide Y, Orexins or Ghrelin. In some embodiments, the hormone receptor of Neuropeptide Y, Orexins, or Ghrelin may be blocked by the administration of the weight loss composition.

In some embodiments, the weight loss composition comprises an agonist of a hormone or hormone receptor that decreases food intake. In some of these embodiments, the hormone is one or more selected from Glucagon-like-peptide 1, Cholecystokinin, Peptide YY (3-36), amylin, Melanocortins. In some embodiments, the weight loss composition comprises one or more selected from leptin, a leptin stimulator, adiponectin, and an adiponectin stimulator.

In some embodiments, a method of preventing or treating an eating disorder comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal in a manner that substantially reduces the level of CRP in a body fluid, and administering a weight loss drug in a dose configured to produce weight loss in the mammal. In some embodiments, the weight loss drug comprises exogenous leptin.

In any of the above embodiments where a weight loss drug is administered, more than one type of weight loss drug may be administered. In some embodiments, one or more weight loss compositions are administered. In some embodiments, one or more of an appetite suppressant, a thermogenic agent, a digestive inhibitor, a cannabinoid antagonist, a antagonist of hormone(s) that increase food intake, and a hormone or the agonist of a hormone that decreases food intake. More than one of any type of weight loss composition can be administered. For example, more than one appetite suppressant may be used as a weight loss composition.

In some embodiments, a method of treating or preventing an eating disorder comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve and performing a surgical procedure configured to produce weight loss. In some embodiments, the surgical procedure comprises a bypass. In some embodiments, the bypass is a jejuno-illeo bypass. In other embodiments, the bypass is a roux-en-Y gastric bypass. In other embodiments, the surgical procedure comprises a gastric restrictive procedure. In some embodiments, the gastric restrictive procedure comprises one or more selected from gastric banding, adjustable gastric banding, gastric stapling, and vertical banded gastroplasty. In some embodiments, the surgical procedure comprises a partial biliopancreatic diversion with or without a duodenum switch.

In other embodiments, a method of preventing or treating an eating disorder comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal to reduce a level of serum CRP, and repeating the splanchnic nerve stimulation to maintain the reduced level of serum CRP. In some embodiments, the serum CRP may be reduced to a level less than 0.11 mg/dL, and repeated splanchnic nerve stimulation maintains the reduced level of CRP at less than 0.11 mg/dL. In some embodiments, a method of preventing or treating an eating disorder comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal until CRP is present in a body fluid at a level less than 0.8 mg/dL, and repeating splanchnic nerve stimulation in a manner to maintain the level of CRP within the range between 0.01 and 0.11 mg/dL.

The invention will be best understood from the attached drawings and the following description, in which similar reference characters refer to similar parts.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagram of the efferent autonomic nervous system.

FIG. 2 is a diagram of sympathetic nervous system anatomy.

FIG. 3 is an elevation view of the splanchnic nerves and celiac ganglia.

FIG. 4 is a schematic of an exemplary stimulation pattern.

FIG. 5 is a schematic of an exemplary pulse generator.

FIG. 6 is a diagram of an exemplary catheter-type lead and electrode assembly.

FIG. 7 is a graph of known plasma catecholamine levels in various physiologic and pathologic states.

FIGS. 8 a, 8 b, and 8 c are exemplary graphs of the effect of splanchnic nerve stimulation on catecholamine release rates, epinephrine levels, and energy expenditure, respectively.

FIG. 9 is a graph of known plasma ghrelin levels over a daily cycle, for various subjects.

FIG. 10 is a section view of an exemplary instrument placement, for implantation of an electrode assembly.

FIGS. 11 a and 11 b are graphs of electrical signal waveforms.

FIG. 12 is a schematic lateral view of an electrode assembly.

FIG. 13 shows a rolling seven-day average of animal weight.

FIG. 14 shows plasma ghrelin levels before and after splanchnic nerve stimulation.

FIG. 15 shows the weight (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '977, in which the current amplitude was maintained at its maximum level for multiple intervals.

FIG. 16 shows the food intake (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '977 where the current amplitude was maintained at its maximum level for multiple intervals.

FIG. 17 shows the weight (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '977 over the course of its 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 18 shows the food intake (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '977 over the course of its 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 19 shows the percent change (relative to day one) in weight and food intake for canine subject '977 over the course of its 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 20 shows the weight (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '202 over the course of its 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 21 shows the food intake (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '202 over the course of its 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 22 shows the percent change (relative to day one) in weight and food intake for canine subject '202 over the course of its 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 23 shows the weight (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '554 over the course of its 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 24 shows the food intake (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '554 over the course of its 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 25 shows the percent change (relative to day one) in weight and food intake for canine subject '554 over the course of its 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 26 shows the sum of the percent change (relative to day one) in weight and food intake across the three canine subjects over the course of 28-day, ramp-cycling therapy.

FIG. 27 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary ramp-cycling treatment algorithm.

FIG. 28 shows a portion of the ramp-cycling treatment algorithm in more detail.

FIG. 29 shows the exemplary stimulation pattern of FIG. 4 in the context of the ramp-cycling treatment algorithm of FIG. 27, and the portion thereof in FIG. 28.

FIG. 30 shows the ramp-cycling technique where the maximum stimulation intensity is also a parameter that is varied over the course of multiple stimulation time periods.

FIG. 31 shows a dynamic stimulation technique where the stimulation frequency and stimulation duty cycles are varied within a signal on time.

FIG. 32 shows the weight (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '554, in which both the maximum stimulation intensity, and the level to which the stimulation intensity is decreased, are variable parameters.

FIG. 33 shows the food intake (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '554, in which both the maximum stimulation intensity, and the level to which the stimulation intensity is decreased, are variable parameters.

FIG. 34 shows the percent change (relative to day one) in weight and food intake for canine subject '554 over the course its ramp-cycling therapy in which both the maximum stimulation intensity, and the level to which the stimulation intensity is decreased, are variable parameters.

FIG. 35 shows the weight (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '202, in which both the maximum stimulation intensity, and the level to which the stimulation intensity is decreased, are variable parameters.

FIG. 36 shows the food intake (as a seven-day rolling average) and the current amplitude for canine subject '202, in which both the maximum stimulation intensity, and the level to which the stimulation intensity is decreased, are variable parameters.

FIG. 37 shows the percent change (relative to day one) in weight and food intake for canine subject '202 over the course its ramp-cycling therapy in which both the maximum stimulation intensity, and the level to which the stimulation intensity is decreased, are variable parameters.

FIG. 38 shows the C-Reactive protein levels after stimulation of the splanchnic nerve over the period of 90 days.

FIG. 39 shows the percentage body fat change as measured by DEXA scans in dogs administered electric splanchnic nerve stimulation over the period of 90 days.

FIG. 40 shows the percentage fat mass change as measured by DEXA scans in dogs administered electric splanchnic nerve stimulation over the period of 90 days.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

The human nervous system is a complex network of nerve cells, or neurons, found centrally in the brain and spinal cord and peripherally in the various nerves of the body. Neurons have a cell body, dendrites and an axon. A nerve is a group of neurons that serve a particular part of the body. Nerves can contain several hundred neurons to several hundred thousand neurons. Nerves often contain both afferent and efferent neurons. Afferent neurons carry signals back to the central nervous system and efferent neurons carry signals to the periphery. A group of neuronal cell bodies in one location is known as a ganglion. Electrical signals are conducted via neurons and nerves. Neurons release neurotransmitters at synapses (connections) with other nerves to allow continuation and modulation of the electrical signal. In the periphery, synaptic transmission often occurs at ganglia.

The electrical signal of a neuron is known as an action potential. Action potentials are initiated when a voltage potential across the cell membrane exceeds a certain threshold. This action potential is then propagated down the length of the neuron. The action potential of a nerve is complex and represents the sum of action potentials of the individual neurons in it.

Neurons can be myelinated and unmyelinated, of large axonal diameter and small axonal diameter. In general, the speed of action potential conduction increases with myelination and with neuron axonal diameter. Accordingly, neurons are classified into type A, B and C neurons based on myelination, axon diameter, and axon conduction velocity. In terms of axon diameter and conduction velocity, A is greater than B which is greater than C.

The autonomic nervous system is a subsystem of the human nervous system that controls involuntary actions of the smooth muscles (blood vessels and digestive system), the heart, and glands, as shown in FIG. 1. The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. The sympathetic nervous system generally prepares the body for action by increasing heart rate, increasing blood pressure, and increasing metabolism. The parasympathetic system prepares the body for rest by lowering heart rate, lowering blood pressure, and stimulating digestion.

The hypothalamus controls the sympathetic nervous system via descending neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, as shown in FIG. 2. These neurons synapse with preganglionic sympathetic neurons that exit the spinal cord and form the white communicating ramus. The preganglionic neuron will either synapse in the paraspinous ganglia chain or pass through these ganglia and synapse in a peripheral, or collateral, ganglion such as the celiac or mesenteric. After synapsing in a particular ganglion, a postsynaptic neuron continues on to innervate the organs of the body (heart, intestines, liver, pancreas, etc.) or to innervate the adipose tissue and glands of the periphery and skin. Preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic system can be both small-diameter unmyelinated fibers (type C-like) and small-diameter myelinated fibers (type B-like). Postganglionic neurons are typically unmyelinated type C neurons.

Several large sympathetic nerves and ganglia are formed by the neurons of the sympathetic nervous system as shown in FIG. 3. The greater splanchnic nerve (GSN) is formed by efferent sympathetic neurons exiting the spinal cord from thoracic vertebral segment numbers 4 or 5 (T4 or T5) through thoracic vertebral segment numbers 9 or 10 or 11 (T9, T10, or T11). The lesser splanchnic (lesser SN) nerve is formed by preganglionic fibers sympathetic efferent fibers from T10 to T12 and the least splanchnic nerve (least SN) is formed by fibers from T12. The GSN is typically present bilaterally in animals, including humans, with the other splanchnic nerves having a more variable pattern, present unilaterally or bilaterally and sometimes being absent. The splanchnic nerves run along the anterior-lateral aspect of the vertebral bodies and pass out of the thorax and enter the abdomen through the crus of the diaphragm. The nerves run in proximity to the azygous veins. Once in the abdomen, neurons of the GSN synapse with postganglionic neurons primarily in celiac ganglia. Some neurons of the GSN pass through the celiac ganglia and synapse on in the adrenal medulla. Neurons of the lesser SN and least SN synapse with post-ganglionic neurons in the mesenteric ganglia.

Postganglionic neurons, arising from the celiac ganglia that synapse with the GSN, innervate primarily the upper digestive system, including the stomach, pylorus, duodenum, pancreas, and liver. In addition, blood vessels and adipose tissue of the abdomen are innervated by neurons arising from the celiac ganglia/greater splanchnic nerve. Postganglionic neurons of the mesenteric ganglia, supplied by preganglionic neurons of the lesser and least splanchnic nerve, innervate primarily the lower intestine, colon, rectum, kidneys, bladder, and sexual organs, and the blood vessels that supply these organs and tissues.

In the treatment of obesity, a preferred embodiment involves electrical activation of the greater splanchnic nerve of the sympathetic nervous system. Preferably unilateral activation would be utilized, although bilateral activation can also be utilized. The celiac ganglia can also be activated, as well as the sympathetic chain or ventral spinal roots.

Electrical nerve modulation (nerve activation or inhibition) is accomplished by applying an energy signal (pulse) at a certain frequency to the neurons of a nerve (nerve stimulation). The energy pulse causes depolarization of neurons within the nerve above the activation threshold resulting in an action potential. The energy applied is a function of the current (or voltage) amplitude and pulse width or duration. Activation or inhibition can be a function of the frequency, with low frequencies on the order of 1 to 50 Hz resulting in activation and high frequencies greater than 100 Hz resulting in inhibition. Inhibition can also be accomplished by continuous energy delivery resulting in sustained depolarization. Different neuronal types may respond to different frequencies and energies with activation or inhibition.

Each neuronal type (i.e., type A, B, or C neurons) has a characteristic pulse amplitude-duration profile (energy pulse signal or stimulation intensity) that leads to activation. The stimulation intensity can be described as the product of the current amplitude and the pulse width. Myelinated neurons (types A and B) can be stimulated with relatively low current amplitudes, on the order of 0.1 to 5.0 milliamperes, and short pulse widths, on the order of 50 to 200 microseconds. Unmyelinated type C fibers typically require longer pulse widths on the order of 300 to 1,000 microseconds and higher current amplitudes. Thus, in one embodiment, the stimulation intensity for efferent activation would be in the range of about 0.005-5.0 mAmp-msec).

The greater splanchnic nerve also contains type A fibers. These fibers can be afferent and sense the position or state (contracted versus relaxed) of the stomach or duodenum. Stimulation of A fibers may produce a sensation of satiety by transmitting signals to the hypothalamus. They can also participate in a reflex arc that affects the state of the stomach. Activation of both A and B fibers can be accomplished because stimulation parameters that activate efferent B fibers will also activate afferent A fibers. Activation of type C fibers may cause both afferent an efferent effects, and may cause changes in appetite and satiety via central or peripheral nervous system mechanisms.

Various stimulation patterns, ranging from continuous to intermittent, can be utilized. With intermittent stimulation, energy is delivered for a period of time at a certain frequency during the signal-on time as shown in FIG. 4. The signal-on time is followed by a period of time with no energy delivery, referred to as signal-off time. The ratio of the signal on time to the sum of the signal on time plus the signal off time is referred to as the duty cycle and it can in some embodiments range from about 1% to about 100%. Peripheral nerve stimulation is commonly conducted at nearly a continuous, or 100%, duty cycle. However, an optimal duty cycle for splanchnic nerve stimulation to treat obesity may be less than 75% in some embodiments, less than 50% in some embodiments, or even less than 30% in further embodiments. This may reduce problems associated with muscle twitching as well as reduce the chance for blood pressure or heart rate elevations. The on time may also be important for splanchnic nerve stimulation in the treatment of obesity. Because some of the desired effects involve the release of hormones, on times sufficiently long enough to allow plasma levels to rise are important. Also gastrointestinal effects on motility and digestive secretions take time to reach a maximal effect. Thus, an on time of approximately 15 seconds, and sometimes greater than 30 seconds, may be optimal.

Superimposed on the duty cycle and signal parameters (frequency, on-time, mAmp, and pulse width) are treatment parameters. Therapy may be delivered at different intervals during the day or week, or continuously. Continuous treatment may prevent binge eating during the off therapy time. Intermittent treatment may prevent the development of tolerance to the therapy. Optimal intermittent therapy may be, for example, 18 hours on and 6 hours off, 12 hours on and 12 hours off, 3 days on and 1 day off, 3 weeks on and one week off or a another combination of daily or weekly cycling. Alternatively, treatment can be delivered at a higher interval rate, say, about every three hours, for shorter durations, such as about 2-30 minutes. The treatment duration and frequency can be tailored to achieve the desired result. The treatment duration can last for as little as a few minutes to as long as several hours. Also, splanchnic nerve activation to treat obesity can be delivered at daily intervals, coinciding with meal times. Treatment duration during mealtime may, in some embodiments, last from 1-3 hours and start just prior to the meal or as much as an hour before.

Efferent modulation of the GSN can be used to control gastric distention/contraction and peristalsis. Gastric distention or relaxation and reduced peristalsis can produce satiety or reduced appetite for the treatment of obesity. These effects can be caused by activating efferent B or C fibers at moderate to high intensities (1.0-5.0 milliAmp current amplitude and 0.150-1.0 milliseconds pulse width) and higher frequencies (10-20 Hz). Gastric distention can also be produced via a reflex arc involving the afferent A fibers. Activation of A fibers may cause a central nervous system mediated reduction in appetite or early satiety. These fibers can be activated at the lower range of stimulation intensity (0.05-0.150 msec pulse width and 0.1-1.0 mAmp current amplitude) and higher range of frequencies given above. Contraction of the stomach can also reduce appetite or cause satiety. Contraction can be caused by activation of C fibers in the GSN. Activation of C fibers may also play a role in centrally mediated effects. Activation of these fibers is accomplished at higher stimulation intensities (5-10 times. those of B and A fibers) and lower frequencies (</=10 Hz).

Electrical activation of the splanchnic nerve can also cause muscle twitching of the abdominal and intercostal muscles. Stimulation at higher frequencies (>15 Hz) reduces the muscle activity, and muscle twitching is least evident or completely habituates at higher frequencies (20-30 Hz). During stimulation at 20 or 30 Hz, a short contraction of the muscles is observed followed by relaxation, such that there is no additional muscle contraction for the remainder of the stimulation. This can be due to inhibitory neurons that are activated with temporal summation.

The muscle-twitching phenomenon can also be used to help guide the stimulation intensity used for the therapy. Once the threshold of muscle twitching is reached, activation of at least the A fibers has occurred. Increasing the current amplitude beyond the threshold increases the severity of the muscle contraction and can increase discomfort. Delivering the therapy at about the threshold for muscle twitching, and not substantially higher, helps ensure that the comfort of the patient is maintained, particularly at higher frequencies. Once this threshold is reached the pulse width can be increased 1.5 to 2.5 times longer, thereby increasing the total charge delivered to the nerve, without significantly increasing the severity of the muscle twitching. By increasing the pulse width at the current, activation of B-fibers is better ensured. Hence, with an electrode placed in close contact with the nerve, a pulse width between 0.100 and 0.150 msec and a frequency of 1 Hz, the current amplitude can be increased until the threshold of twitching is observed (activation of A fibers). This will likely occur between 0.25 and 2.5 m Amps of current, depending on how close the electrode is to the nerve. It should be noted that patient comfort can be achieved at current amplitudes slightly higher than the muscle twitch threshold, or that effective therapy can be delivered at current amplitudes slightly below the muscle twitch threshold, particularly at longer pulse widths.

Habituation to the muscle twitching also occurs, such that the muscle twitching disappears after a certain time period. This allows the stimulation intensity to be increased to as much as 10 times. or greater the threshold of muscle twitching. This can be done without causing discomfort and ensures activation of the C fibers. It was previously thought that high stimulation intensities would result in the perception of pain, but this does not appear to be seen in experimental settings. The stimulation intensity of the muscle twitch threshold can also be used to guide therapy in this instance, because the twitch threshold may vary from patient to patient depending on the nerve and contact of the electrode with the nerve. Once the threshold of muscle twitching is determined the stimulation intensity (current.times.pulse width) can be increased to 5.times. or greater than 10.times. the threshold. Habituation occurs by stimulating at the threshold for up to 24 hours.

Increasing the stimulation intensity after habituation at one level occurs can bring back the muscle activity and require another period of habituation at the new level. Thus, the stimulation intensity can be increased in a stepwise manner, allowing habituation to occur at each step until the desired intensity is achieved at 5-10.times. the original threshold. This is important if intermittent treatment frequency is used, as the habituation process up to the desired stimulation intensity would have to occur after each interval when the device is off Preferably, the device is programmed to allow a prolonged ramp up of intensity over several hours to days, allowing habituation to occur at each level. This is not the same as the rapid rise in current amplitude that occurs at the beginning of each on time during stimulation. This may be built or programmed directly into the pulse generator or controlled/programmed by the physician, who can take into account patient variability of habituation time.

Alternatively, the device can sense muscle twitching. One way to do this is to implant the implantable pulse generator (IPG) over the muscles that are activated. The IPG can then electrically or mechanically sense the twitching and increase the stimulation intensity as habituation occurs.

Efferent electrical activation of the splanchnic nerve can cause an increase in blood pressure, for example, the mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), above a baseline value. A drop in MAP below the baseline can follow this increase. Because a sustained increase in MAP is undesirable, the stimulation pattern can be designed to prevent an increase in MAP. One strategy would be to have a relatively short signal-on time followed by a signal-off time of an equal or longer period. This would allow the MAP to drop back to or below the baseline. The subsequent signal-on time would then raise the MAP, but it can start from a lower baseline. In this manner a sinusoidal-like profile of the MAP can be set up during therapy delivery that would keep the average MAP within safe limits.

During stimulation the MAP may rise at a rate of 0.1-1.0 mmHg/sec depending on frequency, with higher frequencies causing a more rapid rise. An acceptable transient rise in MAP would be about 10-20% of a patient's baseline. Assuming a normal MAP of 90 mmHg, a rise of 9-18 mm Hg over baseline would be acceptable during stimulation. Thus a stimulation on time of approximately 9-54 seconds is acceptable. The off time would be greater than the on time or greater than approximately 60 seconds. Habituation may also occur with the blood pressure changes. This may allow the on time to be increased beyond 60 seconds, after habituation has occurred.

In one embodiment a strategy for treating obesity using splanchnic nerve stimulation is to stimulate A fibers. The pulse width can be set to 0.05-0.15 mSec and the current can be increased (0.1-0.75 mAmp) until the threshold of muscle twitching is reached. Other parameters include a frequency of 20-30 Hz and an on time of less than 60 seconds with a duty cycle of 20-50%. Once habituation to the rise in MAP occurred the on time can be increased to greater than 60 seconds.

In another embodiment, a strategy for treating obesity by electrical activation of the splanchnic nerve involves stimulating the B and A fibers. This strategy involves stimulating the nerve at intensities 2-3.times. the muscle twitch threshold prior to any habituation. The pulse width can preferably be set to a range of about 0.150 mSec to 0.250 mSec with the pulse current increased (allowing appropriate habituation to occur) to achieve the desired level above the original muscle twitch threshold. Representative parameters can be the following:

Current amplitude 0.75-2.0 m Amps,

Pulse width 0.150-0.250 m Seconds,

Frequency 10-20 Hz,

On-time<60 seconds,

Off-time>60 seconds.

These parameters result in gastric relaxation and reduced peristalsis causing early satiety and activation of distention receptors in the stomach that would send satiety signals back to the central nervous system in a reflex manner. Because the effect of gastric relaxation is sustained beyond the stimulation period, the off time can be 0.5 to 2.0 times longer than the on time. This would reduce MAP rise. Once habituation to the MAP rise occurs, the on time can be increased to greater than about 60 seconds, but the duty cycle should in some embodiments remain less than about 50%.

Sometimes it may be desirable to activate all fiber types (A, B and C) of the splanchnic nerve. This can be done by increasing the stimulation intensity to levels 8-12 times. the muscle twitch threshold prior to habituation. The pulse width can preferably be set to a level of 0.250 mSec or greater. Representative parameters can be these:

Current amplitude>2.0 mAmp

Pulse width>0.250 mSec

Frequency 10-20 Hz

On-time<60 seconds

Off-time>60 seconds

Similarly, the on time can be reduced to a longer period, keeping the duty cycle between 10 and 50%, once habituation occurred in this parameter.

It should be noted that the current amplitude will vary depending on the type of electrode used. A helical electrode that has intimate contact with the nerve will have a lower amplitude than a cylindrical electrode that may reside millimeters away from the nerve. In general, the current amplitude used to cause stimulation is proportional to 1/(radial distance from nerve).sup.2. The pulse width can remain constant or can be increased to compensate for the greater distance. The stimulation intensity would be adjusted to activate the afferent/efferent B or C fibers depending on the electrodes used. Using the muscle-twitching threshold prior to habituation can help guide therapy, given the variability of contact/distance between the nerve and electrode.

We have found that weight loss induced by electrical activation of the splanchnic nerve can be amplified by providing dynamic stimulation. Dynamic stimulation refers to changing the values of stimulation intensity, stimulation frequency and/or the duty cycle parameters during treatment. The stimulation intensity, stimulation frequency and/or duty cycle parameters may be changed independently, or they may be changed in concert. One parameter may be changed, leaving the others constant; or multiple parameters may be changed approximately concurrently. The stimulation intensity, stimulation frequency and/or duty cycle parameters may be changed at regular intervals, or they may be ramped up or down substantially continuously. The stimulation intensity, stimulation frequency and/or duty cycle parameters may be changed to preset values, or they may be changed to randomly generated values. Preferably, the changes in the parameters' values are altered through an automated process (e.g. a programmable pulse generator). Preferably, when random changes in the parameter or parameters are desired, those changes are generated randomly by a pulse generator. One advantage of dynamic stimulation is that the body is unable, or at least less able, to adapt or compensate to the changing simulation than to a constant or regular pattern of stimulation. We have found that weight loss induced by electrical activation of the splanchnic nerve can be optimized by providing intermittent therapy, or intervals of electrical stimulation followed by intervals of no stimulation. Our data show that after an interval of stimulation, weight loss can be accelerated by turning the stimulation off This is directly counter to the notion that termination of therapy would result in a rebound phenomenon of increased food intake and weight gain. These data also indicate that a dynamic, or changing, stimulation intensity (e.g., increasing or decreasing daily) produces a more pronounced weight loss than stimulation at a constant intensity. This intermittent therapy, coupled with a dynamic or changing stimulation intensity, is called the ramp-cycling technique, and ramp cycling is one subset of the dynamic stimulation techniques described herein. Given these findings, several dosing strategies are described below.

These treatment algorithms are derived from studies involving canines The muscle twitch threshold using a helical electrode is determined after adequate healing time post implant has elapsed (2-6 weeks). This threshold may range from about 0.125 mAmp-mSec to about 0.5 mAmp-mSec. The stimulation intensity is increased daily over 1-2 weeks, allowing some or complete habituation of muscle twitching to occur between successive increases, until an intensity of 8-10 times. the muscle twitch threshold is achieved (1.0-5.0 mAmp-mSec). During this period, a rapid decline in body weight and food intake is observed. After the initial weight loss period, a transition period is observed over 1-4 weeks in which some lost weight may be regained. Subsequently, a sustained, gradual reduction in weight and food intake occurs during a prolonged stimulation phase of 4-8 weeks. After this period of sustained weight loss, the stimulation may be terminated, which is again followed by a steep decline in weight and food intake, similar to the initial stimulation intensity ramping phase. The post-stimulation weight and food decline may last for 1-4 weeks, after which the treatment algorithm can be repeated to create a therapy cycle, or intermittent treatment interval, that results in sustained weight loss. The duty cycle during this intermittent therapy may range from 20-50% with stimulation-on times of up to 15-60 seconds. This intermittent therapy not only optimizes the weight loss, but also extends the battery life of the implanted device.

In another intermittent therapy treatment algorithm embodiment, therapy cycling occurs during a 24-hour period. In this algorithm, the stimulation intensity is maintained at 1.times.−3.times. the muscle twitch threshold for a 12-18 hour period. Alternatively, the stimulation intensity can be increased gradually (e.g., each hour) during the first stimulation interval. The stimulation is subsequently terminated for 6-12 hours. Alternatively, the stimulation intensity can be gradually decreased during the second interval back to the muscle twitch threshold level. Due to this sustained or accelerating effect that occurs even after cessation of stimulation, the risk of binge eating and weight gain during the off period or declining stimulation intensity period is minimized.

Still other embodiments utilize the ramp-cycling therapy or the ramp-cycling technique. One embodiment of the ramp-cycling technique is shown schematically in FIGS. 27-29. FIG. 27 has a longer time scale than FIG. 28, which in turn has a longer time scale than FIG. 29. FIG. 27 shows the main features of one embodiment of the ramp-cycling technique. Each period of the cycle comprises a stimulation time period (or stimulation period) and a no-stimulation time period (or no-stimulation period). The stimulation time period may be referred to as a first time period, and interval of electrical stimulation, and interval of stimulation, a stimulation intensity ramping phase, or a stimulation interval. The no-stimulation time period may be referred to as a second time period, an interval in which the device is off, an interval of no stimulation, or a declining stimulation intensity period. The stimulation time period and no-stimulation time period should not be confused with the stimulation-on time, signal-on time (or on period or on time), or the signal-off time (or off period or off time), which are terms describing the parameters of the duty cycle and shown in FIGS. 28 and 29. The stimulation time period further comprises portions or consecutive intervals.

In some embodiments of the ramp-cycling version of intermittent therapy, the stimulation time period comprises at least two portions having different stimulation intensities. The portions may also be referred to as consecutive intervals. In other embodiments, the stimulation intensity of each portion may be greater than the stimulation intensity of the previous portion. The multiple portions of such an embodiment are represented by the stimulation time period's step-like structure in FIG. 27. In other embodiments, the increase in stimulation intensity is approximately continuous over the entire stimulation time period, rather than increasing in a stepwise manner. In some embodiments, the stimulation intensity during the no-stimulation time period is about zero (e.g. the pulse generator is inactive) as is shown in FIG. 27. In other embodiments, the stimulation intensity during the no-stimulation time period is substantially reduced from the maximum stimulation intensity applied during the stimulation time period. In other embodiments, the stimulation intensity during the no-stimulation period is ramped down through at least two portions of the no-stimulation period. In still other embodiments, a decrease in stimulation intensity, if any, is approximately continuous over the entire no-stimulation time period, rather than decreasing in single or multiple steps.

A single cycle of ramp-cycling therapy comprises a stimulation time period and a no-stimulation time period. In some embodiments of the ramp-cycling technique, a single cycle may be repeated without changing any of the treatment parameters, the duty cycle parameters or the signal parameters of the original cycle. In other embodiments the treatment parameters, and/or the duty cycle parameters and/or the signal parameters may be changed from cycle to cycle.

We have also found that setting the parameters to particular values inhibits substantial regain of lost weight for a relatively long time following the stimulation period. Indeed, weight and food intake may even continue to decline during the no-stimulation period, in which the stimulator is turned off If the stimulation intensity is increased daily by about 20% over a period of several weeks until it is equal to about 8-10.times. the muscle twitch threshold, and if the stimulator is subsequently turned off, then there is a period of several days thereafter in which there is no rebound increase in weight or food intake.

FIG. 17 shows an example of the ramp-cycling therapy and its unexpected result for canine number '977. In this case, the stimulation time period comprised consecutive intervals in which the stimulation intensity was increased in a stepwise manner. Thereafter, the stimulator was turned off during a four-day no-stimulation time period. Given this finding, additional dosing strategies are described below.

In yet another intermittent therapy treatment algorithm embodiment, ramp-cycling therapy occurs during a period of about ten days to about two months. In this algorithm, the stimulation intensity during one portion of the stimulation time period is initiated and maintained at the muscle twitch threshold for about 24 hours. The stimulation intensity (current (mAmp).times.pulse width (mSec)) is increased by about 20% each day thereafter (i.e. during each subsequent portion of the simulation time period) until the stimulation intensity is about 8-10.times. the muscle twitch threshold. After about 24 hours of stimulation at about 8-10.times. the muscle twitch threshold, the stimulator is turned off during the no-stimulation time period of between about one-half day to about seven days. Utilizing a stimulation period of about 24 hours permits habituation of the muscle twitch, which reduces the discomfort experienced by the subject. Turning the stimulator off during the no-stimulation time period on the order of days avoids a sustained increase in the MAP, reduces the likelihood that the subject develops a tolerance to the therapy, and preserves the stimulator's battery life.

Preferably, the stimulation intensity increase of about 20% from one portion of the stimulation on period to the next portion is achieved by increasing the pulse width by about 20%. More preferably, the stimulation intensity increase of about 20% is achieved by changing both the current and pulse width such that the product of the new values is about 20% greater that the product of the previous day's values for those parameters. Still more preferably, the stimulation intensity increase of about 20% is achieved by increasing both the current and pulse width such that the product of the new values is about 20% greater that the product of the previous day's values for those parameters. Still more preferably, the stimulation intensity increase of about 20% is achieved by increasing the current amplitude by about 20%.

Preferably, the stimulation intensity increase of about 20% in a 24-hour period is achieved by an approximately continuous change in either the current amplitude, pulse width, or both. More preferably, the stimulation intensity increase of about 20% in a 24-hour period is achieved by changing the current amplitude, pulse width, or both, at irregular intervals within each 24-hour period. Still more preferably, the stimulation intensity increase of about 20% in a 24-hour period is achieved by changing the current amplitude, pulse width, or both, at regular intervals within each 24-hour period. Still more preferably, the stimulation intensity increase of about 20% in a 24-hour period is achieved by changing the current amplitude, pulse width, or both, at regular intervals and in a stepwise manner within each 24-hour period. Even more preferably, stimulation intensity increase of about 20% in a 24-hour period is achieved by changing the current amplitude, pulse width, or both, once during each 24-hour period. Still more preferably, the stimulation intensity increase of about 20% in a 24-hour period is achieved by increasing the current amplitude once during each 24-hour period.

Preferably, the stimulator is turned off in the cycle for between about 1 day and about 10 days. More preferably, the stimulator is turned off for between about 1 day and about 5 days. Still more preferably, the stimulator is turned off for about 3 days.

Some embodiments include a method for treating a medical condition, the method comprising electrically activating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal for the stimulation time period, wherein the first time period comprises a plurality of consecutive intervals. During each of the plurality of consecutive intervals, the splanchnic nerve in the mammal is electrically activated according a stimulation pattern configured to result in net weight loss in the mammal during each interval. The stimulation pattern comprises a signal-on time (on period or on time) and a signal-off time (off period or off time) in a duty cycle. The on period comprises a stimulation intensity and a frequency. The stimulation intensity includes a current amplitude and a pulse width. The method further includes reducing or ceasing the electrical activation of the splanchnic nerve for a no-stimulation time period, such that the mammal loses net weight during the no-stimulation period.

In one embodiment, the duration of the stimulation time period is about ten days. In other embodiments the duration of the stimulation time period is between one day and 50 days. In still other embodiments the duration of the stimulation time period is between 4 hours and 100 days.

In some embodiments, there are ten consecutive intervals in the stimulation time period. In other embodiments, there are between about 3 intervals and about 50 intervals in the stimulation time period. In still other embodiments there are between about 2 and about 5000 intervals in the stimulation time period.

In some embodiments, the duration of each consecutive interval is about 24 hours. In other embodiments, the duration of each consecutive interval is between twelve hours and seven days. In still other embodiments, each consecutive interval is between one minute and 50 days.

In one embodiment, the duration of the on period is approximately equal to the duration of the interval, and the duration of the off period is approximately zero seconds. In some embodiments, the ratio of the on period to the off period is between about 0.75 and about 1.5. In still other embodiments, the ratio is greater than about 0.75. In some embodiments, the ratio is greater than about 1.5. In other embodiments, the ratio of the on period to the off period is greater than about 3. In other embodiments, the ratio of the on period to the off period is about 0.75 or less, while in other embodiments the ratio is about 0.5 or less. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the on period to the off period is about 0.3 or less. In still other embodiments, the on period is about two minutes or less. In some embodiments, the on period is about one minute or less. In other embodiments, the on period is about one minute or less, and the off period is about one minute or more. In some embodiments the on period is greater than about 15 seconds but in other embodiments, the on time is greater than about 30 seconds.

In some embodiments the combined on period and off period cycle is repeated continuously within the interval. In other embodiments the combined on period and off period cycle is repeated intermittently within the interval. In still other embodiments, the combined on period and off period cycle is repeated irregularly within the interval.

In some embodiments, the frequency is about 15 Hz or greater to minimize skeletal twitching. In some embodiments the frequency is about 20 Hz or greater. In some embodiments the frequency is about 30 Hz or greater. In some embodiments, the frequency is varied within each interval, but in other embodiments the frequency remains constant within each interval. In some embodiments the frequency is varied from interval to interval, but in other embodiments the frequency remains constant.

In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is varied within each interval during the stimulation time period, but in other embodiments, the stimulation intensity remains constant within each interval during the stimulation time period.

In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is varied from interval to interval during the stimulation time period. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is increased from interval to interval during the stimulation time period. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity of the first interval during the stimulation time period is set at about the muscle twitch threshold. In some embodiments the first interval is set below the muscle twitch threshold, while in other embodiments the first interval is set above the muscle twitch threshold.

In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is increased by about 20% from interval to interval during the stimulation time period. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is increased by between about 15% and about 25% from interval to interval. In still other embodiments, the stimulation intensity is increased by between about 1% and about 15% from interval to interval. In other embodiments, the stimulation intensity is increased by between about 25% and about 40% from interval to interval. In still other embodiments the stimulation intensity is increased by between about 40% to about 100% from interval to interval.

In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is varied by changing the current amplitude. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is varied by changing the pulse width. In some embodiments, the stimulation intensity is varied by changing the electrical potential. In some embodiments the stimulation intensity is varied by changing any combination of the current amplitude, the pulse width, and the electrical potential.

In some embodiments the no-stimulation time period is about four days. In some embodiments the no-stimulation time period is between about one day and about seven days. In some embodiments the no-stimulation time period is between about 18 hours and about ten days. In some embodiments the no-stimulation time period is between about 1 hour and about 50 days. In some embodiments the no-stimulation time period is more than about 50 days. In some embodiments the no-stimulation time period is less than about one day. In some embodiments the no-stimulation time period is less than about six hours. In other embodiments, the second time period is less than about one hour.

The following three ramp-cycling algorithms were tested for their efficacy. Each experiment lasted for 28 days. The first algorithm used daily, stepwise increases in the current amplitude to increase the stimulation intensity during the stimulation time period. The stimulation intensity was so increased for nine consecutive days within the stimulation time period. On the tenth day, the no-stimulation time period began. During the no-stimulation time period the stimulator was turned off and remained off for four days. The above cycle was then repeated.

The second of the three ramp-cycling algorithms used daily, stepwise increases in the current amplitude to increase the stimulation intensity during the stimulation time period. The stimulation intensity was so increased for nine consecutive days. On the tenth day, the no-stimulation time period began. During the no-stimulation time period the stimulator was turned off and remained off for three days. That cycle was then repeated.

The third of the three ramp-cycling algorithms used daily, stepwise increases in the current amplitude to increase the stimulation intensity during the stimulation time period. The stimulation intensity was so increased for nine consecutive days. On the tenth day, the no-stimulation time period began. In this case, the stimulation intensity was reduced to a non-zero threshold value during the no-stimulation time period. The cycle was then repeated. This algorithm did not contain a no-stimulation time period where the stimulator was turned off.

The results of the first ramp-cycling algorithms are given in FIGS. 17-19. FIG. 17 shows the current amplitude and weight (calculated as a seven day rolling average) plotted against time in days for the dog in the 28-day study utilizing the first ramp-cycling algorithm. The data show that the animal's weight continued to decrease during the four-day period (the no-stimulation period) in which the stimulator was turned off. FIG. 18 shows the current amplitude and food intake (calculated as a seven day rolling average) plotted against time in days for the same dog. The data show that the animal's food intake decreased during the stimulation time period and showed only a modest upward trend during the four days during the no-stimulation time period in which the stimulator was turned off FIG. 19 shows the percent change in weight and food intake as a function of time in days. These data reflect the net change in the magnitude of the parameter referenced to the value on the first day. These values are not calculated as a rolling average. The data demonstrate the general trend of weight decrease even over the four-day no-stimulation time period in which the stimulator was inactive. The data also exhibit a significant reduction in food intake over the initial cycle followed by an approximately constant and modest increase thereafter.

The results of the second ramp-cycling algorithms are given in FIGS. 20 through 22. FIG. 20 shows the current amplitude and weight (calculated as a seven day rolling average) plotted against time in days for a different dog in a 28-day study. The data show that the animal's weight decreased during the stimulation time period, and showed only a modest increase, if any, during the three-day no-stimulation time period in which the stimulator was turned off FIG. 21 shows the current amplitude and food intake (calculated as a seven day rolling average) plotted against time in days for the same dog. The data show that the animal's food intake decreased during the stimulation time period but exhibited an upward trend during the three-day no-stimulation time period in which the stimulator was turned off Even though the food intake partially rebounded, the animal did not experience a substantial regain of the weight lost. FIG. 22 shows the percent change in weight and food intake as a function of time in days. These data reflect the net change in the magnitude of the parameter referenced to the value on the first day. These values are not calculated as a rolling average. The data demonstrate the initial trend of weight decrease even over the three-day period no-stimulation period in which the stimulator is inactive, followed by modest increase in weight over the subsequent cycles. The data also exhibit an erratic pattern for food intake over the several cycles, although the initial cycle shows the expected continuous reduction in food intake.

The results of the third ramp-cycling algorithm are given in FIGS. 23 through 25. FIG. 23 shows the current amplitude and weight (calculated as a seven day rolling average) plotted against time in days for a third dog in a 28-day study. The data show that the animal's weight decreased over the course of several cycles, although there was a delay in the animal's weight-loss response to the stimulation. In this animal's protocol, the non stimulation time period did not include a time in which the stimulator was completely turned off; rather, the stimulation intensity was reduced to a threshold level during the no-stimulation time period prior to the next ramp-up or stimulation time period. FIG. 24 shows the current amplitude and food intake (calculated as a seven day rolling average) plotted against time in days for the same dog. The animal's food intake showed a modest decrease over the course of the treatment, but it also exhibited a delay in its response. FIG. 25 shows the percent change in weight and food intake as a function of time in days. These data reflect the net change in the magnitude of the parameter referenced to the value on the first day. These values are not calculated as a rolling average. The data demonstrate that, following a delay in responding, there is a net decrease in weight and food intake over time using this algorithm. FIG. 26 is a plot of the pooled data for the three canine subjects. The graph shows the total percent change in weight and food intake as a function of time in days for the three dogs. These data reflect the net change in the magnitude of the parameter referenced to the value on the first day. These values are not calculated as a rolling average. The data indicate that there is an overall weight decrease using ramp-cycle algorithms, and that there is an initial decrease in food intake followed by a modest rebound after multiple cycles.

In yet another embodiment of dynamic stimulation using the ramp-cycling technique, the stimulation intensity is initially set to a value approximately equal to the muscle twitch threshold. The stimulation intensity is then increased at regular intervals until the chosen maximum stimulation intensity is achieved, which preferably falls in the range of eight times to ten times the muscle twitch threshold. Preferably, the stimulation intensity is increased in regular increments and at regular intervals. Preferably, the stimulation intensity is increased by between about 10% and about 20% of the value of the previous stimulation intensity until the desired maximum stimulation intensity is attained. Preferably, once the desired maximum stimulation intensity is attained, the stimulation intensity is reduced in a single step to the muscle twitch threshold. Alternatively, the maximum stimulation intensity is reduced to the muscle twitch threshold through a plurality of stepwise decreases. Alternatively, the stimulation intensity is reduced to a value that is lower than the maximum stimulation intensity and higher than the muscle twitch threshold. Preferably, this pattern of increases and decreases is repeated, indefinitely.

More preferably, this pattern of increasing the stimulation intensity to about eight to about ten times the muscle twitch threshold and reducing the stimulation intensity back down to the muscle twitch threshold is repeated for a period of about one week to about four months. Following that period of about one week to about four months, the pattern is changed such that the maximum stimulation intensity for the next week to several months is set to about two to about four times the muscle twitch threshold, rather than about eight to about ten times the muscle twitch threshold. Following the second period of about one week to about four months, where the maximum stimulation intensity is set to a value equal to between about two times to about four times the muscle twitch threshold, the first cycle is re-instituted whereby the maximum peak intensity is set again to about eight to about ten times the muscle twitch threshold for about one week to about four months. A schematic diagram of this embodiment is shown in FIG. 30. The overarching pattern of changes to the maximum stimulation intensity may then be repeated regularly or in a random pattern.

One advantage of these embodiments is that, during the pattern, different fiber types may be activated. In the cycles where the maximum peak intensity is between about eight times and about ten times the muscle twitch threshold, there is a progressive activation of fibers beginning with the A fibers and concluding with the C fibers. In the cycles where the maximum peak intensity is between about two times and about four times the muscle twitch threshold, the C fibers are not activated. Therefore, different fibers are activated for both short periods and long periods, thereby preventing compensation.

Shown in FIGS. 32-37 are the results obtained by employing a dynamic stimulation technique with ramp cycling where both the maximum stimulation intensity, and the level to which the stimulation intensity was decreased, were experimental variables. FIG. 34 shows the current amplitude and weight (calculated as a seven day rolling average) plotted against time in days for canine subject '554. The stimulation intensity was increased over a period of days by increasing the current amplitude. The stimulation intensity was then reduced in a single step down to a threshold value. This pattern was repeated for several cycles (approximately days 5 through 48). Following those cycles, the stimulation intensity was again increased back up to match the first series' maximum stimulation intensity; however, over the next several cycles, the stimulation intensity was not reduced down to the initial threshold level, but rather reduced to a level between the maximum stimulation intensity and the threshold stimulation intensity (approximately days 49 through 74). After several cycles of the abbreviated ramp, the stimulation pattern was changed again such that the maximum stimulation intensity was reduced to a relatively low value and the stimulation-intensity decrease lowered the stimulation intensity down to the threshold value (approximately days 75 through 105). Thereafter, the entire pattern was reinitiated (beginning at approximately day 107).

The data show that, while the overall trend towards weight loss demonstrated the efficacy of the embodiment, the animal's weight plateaued or began to increase, modestly, after approximately 10 days of both the high-end abbreviated ramp cycles (days 49 through 74) and the low-end abbreviated ramp cycles (days 75 through 105). This suggests that after extended periods of approximately constant stimulation intensity the body compensates for the stimulus and the effects of the stimulation on weight are reduced or eliminated. This may mean that it is desirable to alternately activate and deactivate the groups of nerve fibers at intervals sufficiently separated in time to prevent such compensation. Consequently, a preferred embodiment of the dynamic stimulation technique involves changing the stimulation intensity frequently enough, and substantially enough, to prevent compensation.

Similar features are observed in the data plotted in FIG. 35 for canine subject number '202. FIG. 35 shows the current amplitude and weight (calculated as a seven day rolling average) plotted against time in days for canine subject '202. The stimulation intensity was increased over a period of days by increasing the current amplitude. The stimulation intensity was then reduced in a single step down to a threshold value. This pattern was repeated for several cycles (approximately days 1 through 56). Following those cycles, the stimulation pattern was altered such that the maximum stimulation intensity in the new pattern was set to a value considerably lower than the maximum stimulation intensity of the previous group of cycles. Within the new pattern, the stimulation-intensity decrease after each maximum changed the stimulation intensity to the same threshold value as for the previous group of cycles (approximately days 56 through 105). Thereafter, the entire pattern was reinitiated (beginning at approximately day 106).

Once again, the data show that, while the overall trend towards weight loss demonstrated the efficacy of the embodiment, the animal's weight plateaued or began to increase after approximately 10-12 days of the low-end, abbreviated ramp cycles (approximately days 56 through 105). When the maximum stimulation intensity was increased back up to the high value (approximately days 106 through 112) the rebound was halted, and the trend towards weight loss became more pronounced. These data, like the data for canine subject '554, support the hypothesis that weight loss is amplified by preventing the body from compensating for the stimulation. These data also support the hypothesis that one of the preferred techniques for preventing the body from compensating for the stimulation is to change the maximum and/or minimum stimulation intensities of the ramp cycles at appropriate intervals, and more preferably to do so in a manner such that one or more of the groups of nerve fibers (A, B and/or C fibers) are activated during one group of ramp cycles (e.g. days 0 through 56 in FIGS. 32 and 35) and deactivated during the next group of ramp cycles (e.g. the B and C fibers during days 77 through 105 in FIGS. 32 and 35).

Additional support for the hypothesis described above may be found in FIGS. 33, 34, 36 and 37. FIGS. 33 and 36 show the current and daily food intake (calculated as a seven day rolling average) plotted against time in days for canine subjects '554 and '202, respectively, during the same studies described in the context of FIGS. 32 and 35. Similarly, FIGS. 34 and 37 show the weight and daily food intake plotted against time in days for canine subjects '554 and '202, respectively, during those studies. The data of FIGS. 34 and 37 reflect the net change in the magnitude of the given parameters relative to that parameter's value on the first day; they are not calculated as rolling averages. The data show that the trend in each animal's food intake substantially tracked the changes in the animal's weight over the course of the experiment. Like the weight data, the food intake data for canine subject '554 show that the animal's food intake plateaued or began to increase after approximately 10 days of both the high-end abbreviated ramp cycles (approximately days 49 through 74 of FIGS. 33 and 34) and the low-end abbreviated ramp cycles (approximately days 75 through 105 of FIGS. 33 and 34). Similarly, the food intake data for canine subject '202 show that the animal's food intake plateaued or began to increase after approximately 10-12 days of the low-end, abbreviated ramp cycles (approximately days 56 through 105 of FIGS. 36 and 37). While the food intake data shows higher variability, they, too, suggest that weight loss using a ramp cycling technique may be amplified by changing the maximum and/or minimum stimulation intensities of the ramp cycles at appropriate intervals, and more preferably to do so in a manner such that one or more of the groups of nerve fibers are alternately activated and deactivated.

In addition to the desirability of the ramp-cycling subset of dynamic stimulation, it may also be desirable to alter the stimulation frequency and/or the duty cycle instead of, or concurrent with, the intermittent therapy based on changes to the stimulation intensity. Changes to the stimulation frequency and/or the duty cycle may operate to optimize the activation of a given subset of fibers. During periods where the stimulation intensity is at a relatively low value, and thus large fibers are selectively activated, it is preferable to use relatively high stimulation frequencies and higher-valued duty cycles. More preferably, the stimulation frequency is between about 20 Hz and about 30 Hz, and the stimulation duty cycle is set to between about 30 percent and about 50 percent. During periods where the stimulation intensity is at a relatively high value, and thus small fibers are selectively activated, it is preferable to use relatively low stimulation frequencies and relatively lower-valued duty cycles. More preferably, the stimulation frequency is between about ten Hz and about 20 Hz, and the stimulation duty cycle is set to between about 20 percent and about 30 percent.

It may also be desirable to alter the stimulation duty cycle and stimulation frequency during each stimulation intensity interval. Thus, for a given value of the stimulation intensity, the stimulation duty cycle or stimulation frequency, or both, may be varied according to a preselected pattern or they may be varied randomly. Preferably, the stimulation duty cycle may be varied between about 1% and about 100%. More preferably, the stimulation duty cycle may be varied between about 5% and 50%. Preferably, the stimulation frequency may be varied between about 1 Hz and about 500 Hz. More preferably, the stimulation frequency may be varied between about 2 Hz and about 100 Hz. Still more preferably, the stimulation frequency may be varied between about 5 Hz and about 30 Hz. More preferably, the changes in the stimulation duty cycle may be accomplished by fixing the signal-on time to a certain duration (e.g. about 15 seconds to about 60 seconds), and the signal-off time may be varied from about 15 about 5 minutes). This can be accomplished randomly or through a preset pattern such as 50%, 33%, 25%, 20%, 10% that repeats upward and/or downward indefinitely. Still more preferably, and to substantially reduce the likelihood of nerve damage, the average stimulation duty cycle, as calculated over the entire treatment interval, should not be significantly higher that about 50%. Still more preferably, the stimulation frequency may be varied during each on time within the intervals where the stimulation duty cycle is varied. This may also be done randomly or in a pattern. Preferably the pattern is one where the stimulation frequency is increased or decreased in a stepwise manner through the frequencies 30 Hz, 20 Hz, 15 Hz, ten Hz. This pattern may repeat indefinitely. A schematic representation of one possible stimulation frequency pattern, coupled with one possible duty cycle pattern, at one possible stimulation intensity, is shown in FIG. 31, which is itself an enlargement of a portion of FIG. 30.

It is noted that those of skill in the art may use the term “duty cycle” to mean different things in different contexts. For example, where the signal on time is set to a fixed value, as described above, one might refer to the duty cycle as being “longer” or “shorter,” depending on the length of the off time. This reflects the use of the term duty cycle to mean the total period for one signal on/off cycle. If there is any ambiguity, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand from the context or the units provided whether the quantity being referred to is the total time, or the ratio of the signal on time to the sum of the signal on time plus the signal off time, the definition primarily used herein.

Alternatively, an alpha-sympathetic receptor blocker, such as prazosin, can be used to blunt the rise in MAP. Alpha-blockers are commonly available antihypertensive medications. The rise in MAP seen with splanchnic nerve stimulation is the result of alpha-receptor activation, which mediates arterial constriction. Because the affects of this therapy on reduced food intake and energy expenditure are related to beta-sympathetic receptor activity, addition of the alpha-blocker would not likely alter the therapeutic weight loss benefits.

In one embodiment a helical electrode design with platinum iridium ribbon electrodes is used. The electrodes encircle all or a substantial portion of the nerve. A balanced charge biphasic pulse is be delivered to the electrodes, resulting in a bi-directional action potential to activate both efferent and afferent neurons. However, utilizing a waveform that is asymmetrical between the positive and negative phase deflections can create a unidirectional action potential, resulting in anodal block without incidental afferent fiber activation. Thus, whereas a typical biphasic waveform has equal positive and negative phase deflections (FIG. 11 a), the anodal blocking waveform would have a short and tall positive deflection followed by a long shallow negative deflection (FIG. 11 b). The amperage X time for each deflection would be equal, thereby achieving a charge balance. Charge balance is a consideration for avoiding nerve damage.

Alternatively, a quadripolar electrode assembly can be used. One pair of electrode placed distally on the nerve would be used to produce efferent nerve activation. The second proximal pair would be used to block the afferent A fiber conduction. The blocking electrode pair can have asymmetric electrode surface areas, with the cathode surface area being greater than the anode (described by Petruska, U.S. Pat. No. 5,755,750) (FIG. 12). Because of the large surface area at the cathode, the charge density would be insufficient to cause activation. The small surface area at the anode would cause hyperpolarization, particularly in the A fibers, and thereby block afferent conduction. Signals can be sent to four electrodes, timed such that when the efferent activation pair created a bi-directional action potential, the blocking pair would be active as the afferent potential traveled up the nerve. Alternatively, the blocking pair can be activated continuously during the treatment period.

A tripolar electrode can also be used to get activation of a select fiber size bilaterally or to get unilateral activation. To get bi-directional activation of B fibers and anodal blocking of A fibers, a tripolar electrode with the cathode flanked proximally and distally by anodes would be used. Unidirectional activation would be achieved by moving the cathode closer to the proximal electrode and delivering differential current ratios to the anodes.

Pulse generation for electrical nerve modulation is accomplished using a pulse generator. Pulse generators can use microprocessors and other standard electrical components. A pulse generator for this embodiment can generate a pulse, or energy signal, at frequencies ranging from approximately 0.5 Hz to approximately 300 Hz, a pulse width from approximately 10 to approximately 1,000 microseconds, and a constant current of between approximately 0.1 milliamperes to approximately 20 milliamperes. The pulse generator can be capable of producing a ramped, or sloped, rise in the current amplitude. The preferred pulse generator can communicate with an external programmer and or monitor. Passwords, handshakes and parity checks are employed for data integrity. The pulse generator can be battery operated or operated by an external radiofrequency device. Because the pulse generator, associated components, and battery can be implanted, they are, in some embodiments, preferably encased in an epoxy-titanium shell.

A schematic of the implantable pulse generator (IPG) is shown in FIG. 5. Components are housed in the epoxy-titanium shell. The battery supplies power to the logic and control unit. A voltage regulator controls the battery output. The logic and control unit control the stimulus output and allow for programming of the various parameters such as pulse width, amplitude, and frequency. In addition, the stimulation pattern and treatment parameters can be programmed at the logic and control unit. A crystal oscillator provides timing signals for the pulse and for the logic and control unit. An antenna is used for receiving communications from an external programmer and for status checking the device. The programmer would allow the physician to program the required stimulation intensity increase to allow for muscle and MAP habituation for a given patient and depending on the treatment frequency. Alternatively, the IPG can be programmed to increase the stimulation intensity at a set rate, such as 0.1 mAmp each hour at a pulse width of 0.25-0.5 mSec. The output section can include a radio transmitter to inductively couple with the wireless electrode to apply the energy pulse to the nerve. The reed switch allows manual activation using an external magnet. Devices powered by an external radiofrequency device would limit the components of the pulse generator to primarily a receiving coil or antenna. Alternatively, an external pulse generator can inductively couple via radio waves directly with a wireless electrode implanted near the nerve.

The IPG is coupled to a lead (where used) and an electrode. The lead (where used) is a bundle of electrically conducting wires insulated from the surroundings by a non-electrically conducting coating. The wires of the lead connect the IPG to the stimulation electrodes, which transfers the energy pulse to the nerve. A single wire can connect the IPG to the electrode, or a wire bundle can connect the IPG to the electrode. Wire bundles may or may not be braided. Wire bundles are preferred because they increase reliability and durability. Alternatively, a helical wire assembly can be utilized to improve durability with flexion and extension of the lead.

The electrodes are preferably platinum or platinum-iridium ribbons or rings as shown in FIG. 6. The electrodes are capable of electrically coupling with the surrounding tissue and nerve. The electrodes can encircle a catheter-like lead assembly. The distal electrode can form a rounded cap at the end to create a bullet nose shape. Preferably, this electrode serves as the cathode. A lead of this type can contain 2 to 4 ring electrodes spaced anywhere from 2.0 to 5.0 mm apart with each ring electrode being approximately 1.0 to approximately 10.0 mm in width. Catheter lead electrode assemblies may have an outer diameter of approximately 0.5 mm to approximately 1.5 mm to facilitate percutaneous placement using an introducer.

Alternatively a helical or cuff electrode is used, as are known to those of skill in the art. A helical or cuff electrode can prevent migration of the lead away from the nerve. Helical electrodes may be optimal in some settings because they may reduce the chance of nerve injury and ischemia.

The generator may be implanted subcutaneously, intra-abdominally, or intrathoracically, and/or in any location that is appropriate as is known to those of skill in the art.

Alternatively, a wireless system can be employed by having an electrode that inductively couples to an external radiofrequency field. A wireless system would avoid problems such as lead fracture and migration, found in wire-based systems. It would also simplify the implant procedure, by allowing simple injection of the wireless electrode in proximity to the splanchnic nerve, and avoiding the need for lead anchoring, tunneling, and subcutaneous pulse generator implantation.

A wireless electrode would contain a coil/capacitor that would receive a radiofrequency signal. The radiofrequency signal would be generated by a device that would create an electromagnetic field sufficient to power the electrode. It would also provide the desired stimulation parameters (frequency, pulse width, current amplitude, signal on/off time, etc.) The radiofrequency signal generator can be worn externally or implanted subcutaneously. The electrode would also have metallic elements for electrically coupling to the tissue or splanchnic nerve. The metallic elements can be made of platinum or platinum-iridium. Alternatively, the wireless electrode can have a battery that would be charged by an radiofrequency field that would then provide stimulation during intervals without an radiofrequency field.

Bipolar stimulation of a nerve can be accomplished with multiple electrode assemblies with one electrode serving as the positive node and the other serving as a negative node. In this manner nerve activation can be directed primarily in one direction (unilateral), such as efferently, or away from the central nervous system. Alternatively, a nerve cuff electrode can be employed. Helical cuff electrodes as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,251,634 to Weinberg are preferred. Cuff assemblies can similarly have multiple electrodes and direct and cause unilateral nerve activation.

Unipolar stimulation can also be performed. As used herein, unipolar stimulation means using a single electrode on the lead, while the metallic shell of the IPG, or another external portion of the IPG, functions as a second electrode, remote from the first electrode. This type of unipolar stimulation can be more suitable for splanchnic nerve stimulation than the bipolar stimulation method, particularly if the electrode is to be placed percutaneously under fluoroscopic visualization. With fluoroscopically observed percutaneous placement, it may not be possible to place the electrodes adjacent the nerve, which can be preferred for bipolar stimulation. With unipolar stimulation, a larger energy field is created in order to couple electrically the electrode on the lead with the remote external portion of the IPG, and the generation of this larger energy field can result in activation of the nerve even in the absence of close proximity between the single lead electrode and the nerve. This allows successful nerve stimulation with the single electrode placed in “general proximity” to the nerve, meaning that there can be significantly greater separation between the electrode and the nerve than the “close proximity” used for bipolar stimulation. The magnitude of the allowable separation between the electrode and the nerve will necessarily depend upon the actual magnitude of the energy field that the operator generates with the lead electrode in order to couple with the remote electrode.

In multiple electrode lead assemblies, some of the electrodes can be used for sensing nerve activity. This sensed nerve activity can serve as a signal to commence stimulation therapy. For example, afferent action potentials in the splanchnic nerve, created due to the commencement of feeding, can be sensed and used to activate the IPG to begin stimulation of the efferent neurons of the splanchnic nerve. Appropriate circuitry and logic for receiving and filtering the sensed signal would be used in the IPG.

Because branches of the splanchnic nerve directly innervate the adrenal medulla, electrical activation of the splanchnic nerve results in the release of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the blood stream. In addition, dopamine and cortisol, which also raise energy expenditure, can be released. Catecholamines can increase energy expenditure by about 15% to 20%. By comparison, subitramine, a pharmacologic agent used to treat obesity, increases energy expenditure by approximately only 3% to 5%.

Human resting venous blood levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine are approximately 25 picograms (pg)/milliliter (ml) and 300 pg/ml, respectively, as shown in FIG. 7. Detectable physiologic changes such as increased heart rate occur at norepinephrine levels of approximately 1,500 pg/ml and epinephrine levels of approximately 50 pg/ml. Venous blood levels of norepinephrine can reach as high 2,000 pg/ml during heavy exercise, and levels of epinephrine can reach as high as 400 to 600 pg/ml during heavy exercise. Mild exercise produces norepinephrine and epinephrine levels of approximately 500 pg/ml and 100 pg/ml, respectively. It can be desirable to maintain catecholamine levels somewhere between mild and heavy exercise during electrical sympathetic activation treatment for obesity.

In anesthetized animals, electrical stimulation of the splanchnic nerve has shown to raise blood catecholamine levels in a frequency dependent manner in the range of about 1 Hz to about 20 Hz, such that rates of catecholamine release/production of 0.3 to 4.0 .mu.g/min can be achieved. These rates are sufficient to raise plasma concentrations of epinephrine to as high as 400 to 600 pg/ml, which in turn can result in increased energy expenditure from 10% to 20% as shown in FIG. 8. During stimulation, the ratio of epinephrine to norepinephrine is 65% to 35%. One can change the ratio by stimulating at higher frequencies. In some embodiments this is desired to alter the energy expenditure and/or prevent a rise in MAP.

Energy expenditure in humans ranges from approximately 1.5 kcal/min to 2.5 kcal/min. A 15% increase in this energy expenditure in a person with a 2.0 kcal/min energy expenditure would increase expenditure by 0.3 kcal/min. Depending on treatment parameters, this can result in an additional 100 to 250 kcal of daily expenditure and 36,000 to 91,000 kcal of yearly expenditure. One pound of fat is 3500 kcal, yielding an annual weight loss of 10 to 26 pounds.

Increased energy expenditure is fueled by fat and carbohydrate metabolism. Postganglionic branches of the splanchnic nerve innervate the liver and fat deposits of the abdomen. Activation of the splanchnic nerve can result in fat metabolism and the liberation of fatty acids, as well as glycogen breakdown and the release of glucose from the liver. Fat metabolism coupled with increased energy expenditure can result in a net reduction in fat reserves.

In some embodiments, it may be desirable to titrate obesity therapy to plasma ghrelin levels. In humans, venous blood ghrelin levels range from approximately 250 pg/ml to greater than 700 pg/ml as shown in FIG. 9. Ghrelin levels rise and fall during the day with peak levels typically occurring just before meals. Ghrelin surges are believed to stimulate appetite and lead to feeding. Surges in ghrelin may be as high as 1.5-2.0 times that of basal levels. The total ghrelin production in a 24-hour period is believed to be related to the energy state of the patient. Dieting that results in a state of energy deficit is associated with a higher total ghrelin level in a 24-hour period. Splanchnic nerve stimulation has been shown to eliminate or substantially reduce ghrelin surges or spikes. In a canine model, ghrelin levels prior to splanchnic nerve stimulation showed a midday surge of almost 2.0 times basal levels. After one week of stimulation at 20 Hz, on-time of approximately 60 seconds, off-time of approximately 120 seconds, and a peak current intensity of 8.times. the muscle twitch threshold, this midday surge was almost eliminated (FIG. 14). In addition, it increased the total ghrelin production in a 24-hour period, reflecting an energy-deficient state (baseline area under the curve=64.1.times.10.sup.4, stimulation area under the curve=104.1.times.10.sup.4). Splanchnic nerve activation, in the treatment of obesity, can be titrated to reduce ghrelin surges and attain the desired energy deficit state for optimal weight loss. Reductions in food intake comparable to the increases in energy expenditure (i.e. 100 to 250 kcal/day) can yield a total daily kcal reduction of 200 to 500 per day, and 20 to 50 pounds of weight loss per year.

In anesthetized animals, electrical activation of the splanchnic nerve has also been shown to decrease insulin secretion. In obesity, insulin levels are often elevated, and insulin resistant diabetes (Type II) is common. Down-regulation of insulin secretion by splanchnic nerve activation may help correct insulin resistant diabetes.

Implantation of the lead/electrode assembly for activation of the greater splanchnic nerve (sometimes referred to herein as “the splanchnic nerve”) is preferably accomplished percutaneously using an introducer as shown in FIG. 10. The introducer can be a hollow needle-like device that would be placed posteriorly through the skin between the ribs para-midline at the T9-T12 level of the thoracic spinal column. A posterior placement with the patient prone is preferred to allow bilateral electrode placement at the splanchnic nerves, if desired. Placement of the needle can be guided using fluoroscopy, ultrasound, or CT scanning Proximity to the splanchnic nerve by the introducer can be sensed by providing energy pulses to the introducer electrically to activate the nerve while monitoring for a rise in MAP or muscle twitching. All but the tip of the introducer can be electrically isolated so as to focus the energy delivered to the tip of the introducer. The lower the current amplitude used to cause a rise in the MAP or muscle twitch, the closer the introducer tip would be to the nerve. Preferably, the introducer tip serves as the cathode for stimulation. Alternatively, a stimulation endoscope can be placed into the stomach of the patient for electrical stimulation of the stomach. The evoked potentials created in the stomach can be sensed in the splanchnic nerve by the introducer. To avoid damage to the spinal nerves, the introducer can sense evoked potentials created by electrically activating peripheral sensory nerves. Alternatively, evoked potentials can be created in the lower intercostal nerves or upper abdominal nerves and sensed in the splanchnic. Once the introducer was in proximity to the nerve, a catheter type lead electrode assembly would be inserted through the introducer and adjacent to the nerve. Alternatively, a wireless, radiofrequency battery charged, electrode can be advanced through the introducer to reside alongside the nerve. In either case, stimulating the nerve and monitoring for a rise in MAP or muscle twitch can be used to confirm electrode placement.

Once the electrode was in place the current amplitude would be increased at a pulse width of 50 to 500 .mu.sec and a frequency of 1 Hz, until the threshold for muscle twitching was reached. The current amplitude can be set slightly above or slightly below this muscle twitch threshold. After identifying the desired current amplitude the pulse width can be increased by as much as 2.5 times and the frequency increased up to 40 Hz for therapeutic stimulation. The lead (where used) and the IPG would be implanted subcutaneously in the patient's back or side. The lead would be appropriately secured to avoid dislodgement. The lesser and least splanchnic nerves can also be activated to some degree by lead/electrode placement according to the above procedure, due to their proximity to the splanchnic nerve.

Percutaneous placement of the lead electrode assembly can be enhanced using direct or video assisted visualization. An optical port can be incorporated into the introducer. A channel can allow the electrode lead assembly to be inserted and positioned, once the nerve was visualized. Alternatively, a percutaneous endoscope can be inserted into the chest cavity for viewing advancement of the introducer to the nerve. The parietal lung pleura are relatively clear, and the nerves and introducer can be seen running along the vertebral bodies. With the patient prone, the lungs are pulled forward by gravity creating a space for the endoscope and for viewing. This can avoid the need for single lung ventilation. If desired, one lung can be collapsed to provide space for viewing. This is a common and safe procedure performed using a bifurcated endotracheal tube. The endoscope can also be placed laterally, and positive CO.sub.2 pressure can be used to push down the diaphragm, thereby creating a space for viewing and avoiding lung collapse.

Alternatively, stimulation electrodes can be placed along the sympathetic chain ganglia from approximately vertebra T4 to T11. This implantation can be accomplished in a similar percutaneous manner as above. This would create a more general activation of the sympathetic nervous system, though it would include activation of the neurons that comprise the splanchnic nerves.

Alternatively, the lead/electrode assembly can be placed intra-abdominally on the portion of the splanchnic nerve that resides retroperitoneally on the abdominal aorta just prior to synapsing in the celiac ganglia. Access to the nerve in this region can be accomplished laparoscopically, using typical laparoscopic techniques, or via open laparotomy. A cuff electrode can be used to encircle the nerve unilaterally or bilaterally. The lead can be anchored to the crus of the diaphragm. A cuff or patch electrode can also be attached to the celiac ganglia unilaterally or bilaterally. Similar activation of the splanchnic branches of the sympathetic nervous system would occur as implanting the lead electrode assembly in the thoracic region.

An alternative lead/electrode placement would be a transvascular approach. Due to the proximity of the splanchnic nerves to the azygous veins shown in FIG. 10, and in particular the right splanchnic nerve and right azygous vein, modulation can be accomplished by positioning a lead/electrode assembly in this vessel. Access to the venous system and azygous vein can occur via the subclavian vein using standard techniques. The electrode/lead assembly can be mounted on a catheter. A guidewire can be used to position the catheter in the azygous vein. The lead/electrode assembly would include an expandable member, such as a stent. The electrodes would be attached to the stent, and using balloon dilation of the expandable member, can be pressed against the vessel wall so that energy delivery can be transferred to the nerve. The expandable member would allow fixation of the electrode lead assembly in the vessel. The IPG and remaining lead outside of the vasculature would be implanted subcutaneously in a manner similar to a heart pacemaker.

In some embodiments, the apparatus for nerve stimulation can be shielded or otherwise made compatible with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) devices, such that the apparatus is less susceptible to the following effects during exposure to magnetic fields: (a) current induction and its resultant heat effects and potential malfunction of electronics in the apparatus, and (b) movement of the apparatus due to Lorentz forces. This type of magnetic shielding can be accomplished by, for example, using materials for the generator and/or electrode that are nanomagnetic or utilize carbon composite coatings. Such techniques are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,506,972 and 6,673,999, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 2002/0183796, published Dec. 5, 2002; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 2003/0195570, published Oct. 16, 2003; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 2002/0147470, published Oct. 10, 2002. The entireties of all of these references are hereby incorporated by reference.

Combination of Splanchnic Nerve Stimulation and Other Eating Disorder Treatment Modalities

To complement or balance the effects of the electrical modulation of nerves, one or more treatments or prevention modalities for eating disorders may be used in combination with nerve stimulation. In some embodiments, this combination of treatments produces an increase in satiety or a further reduction in appetite as compared to the electrical modulation or the one or more treatment modalities alone. Some particular modalities that may be used to accomplish such increase in satiety or reduction of appetite include, but are not limited to, surgical procedures and drug administration.

Combining electrical stimulation of the splanchnic nerve with other weight loss treatments may have several advantages. First, some surgical procedures, especially restrictive procedures, result in an increase in hunger and appetite which can cause discomfort to the patient. Electrically modulating the splanchnic nerve may reduce this feeling of hunger and appetite. Other weight loss therapies may also be associated with lean muscle mass, which can have several deleterious consequences including reducing basal metabolic rate and altering glucose sensitivity. It may also increase the body composition parameter percentage body fat, which is associated with a worsening of obesity related comorbidities such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Electrical modulation of the splanchnic nerve may increase lean muscle mass and can reduce percentage body fat. Also, most therapies for treating obesity should be combined with diet and behavior modification to achieve the most sustained and greatest results. Difficulty achieving sustained weight loss and maintaining behavioral and diet changes may be encountered when the body tries to regain the lost weight in and effort to defend a certain level of adiposity that may be biologically and behaviorally determined. Electrical modulation of the sympathetic system may lower the defended adiposity level that the body tries to maintain and therefore may allow sustained weight loss particularly when combined with diet and behavioral modification.

In embodiments, a method of treating or preventing an eating disorder may comprise electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve of a mammal and administering to the mammal one or more drugs. In preferred embodiments, the one or more drugs are weight loss drugs. In some of these embodiments, the weight loss drugs may be administered in amounts to decrease or substantially control the body weight of a mammal by decreasing food intake or increasing energy expenditure of the mammal.

In some embodiments, a method of treating or preventing an eating disorder may comprise electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve of a mammal and performing a surgical procedure on the mammal to reduce or substantially control the body weight of the mammal. These embodiments may further comprise administering a drug to the mammal, wherein the drug is administered in an amount to reduce or substantially maintain the body weight of the mammal by reducing the food intake or increasing energy expenditure.

In one embodiment, a method of treating or preventing an eating disorder comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve and performing one or more surgical procedures configured to produce weight loss in a mammal. In some embodiments, a surgical procedure comprises one or more of the group consisting of a gastric restrictive procedure, a bypass, or a diversion. In some embodiments, the gastric restrictive procedure comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of a gastric banding, an adjustable gastric banding, a gastric stapling, or a vertical banded gastroplasty. In some embodiments, a bypass comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of a jejuno-illeo bypass or a roux-en-Y gastric bypass (open and laparoscopic). In some embodiments, the surgical procedure comprises a partial biliopancreatic diversion with a duodenum switch. In some embodiments, the surgical procedure comprises a partial biliopancreatic diversion without a duodenum switch.

In some embodiments, a surgical procedure may comprise insertion of an intragastric displacement device. For example, electrical stimulation of a splanchnic nerve may be combined with the insertion of intragastric balloons in the patient. In some of these embodiments, the placement of such a device in combination with the electrical stimulation of a splanchnic nerve may be used for the treatment of an eating disorder. In some cases, this treatment may be used for a severe treatment disorder. Intragastric device may cause satiety in the mammal by displacing stomach volume. In some embodiments, electrical stimulation of a splanchnic nerve and insertion of an intragastric displacement device is configured to produce weight loss in the mammal. In some embodiments, the placement of the gastric displacement device is a means of achieving weight loss. By following such a procedure with electrical stimulation of a splanchnic nerve, sustained weight loss may be achieved in the mammal.

In some embodiments, the surgical procedure may be performed before, during, and after the electric stimulation of the splanchnic nerve. In some embodiments, the electrical stimulation may take place at different intervals and different intensities as described herein. Surgical procedures may take place prior to, during, or after one or more intervals of electrical stimulation. Preferably, a surgical procedure is performed prior to, after, or during an interval when the electrical stimulation is not being applied.

In some embodiments, a method comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve and administering a weight loss drug. Weight loss drugs may act by many different mechanisms. While some drugs interact with hormone or hormone receptors to increase satiety or decrease food intake, other weight loss drugs may have effects on the pylorus or duodenum that cause reduced peristalsis, stomach distention, and/or delayed stomach emptying. Some weight loss drugs may reduce the secretion of certain digestive enzymes or cause changes in gastrointestinal motility. Other weight loss drugs may increase energy expenditure. In some embodiments, these drugs may cause catechlomaine, cortisol, and dopamine release from the adrenal glands.

In one embodiment, a method of controlling or reducing body weight comprises stimulating a splanchnic nerve and administering a weight loss drug in a dose configured to produce weight loss. In some embodiments, the weight loss drug comprises one or more selected from an appetite suppressant, thermogenic agents, digestive inhibitor, cannabinoid receptor antagonist, hormone stimulators, or hormone repressors. In some embodiments, the weight loss drugs operate by stimulating hormones or blocking hormone receptor sites in the brain.

In some embodiments, the weight loss drug is an appetite suppressant. Examples of appetite suppressants include noradrenergic agents, serotonergic agents, and adrenergic/serotonergic agents. Example of noradrenergic agents include phenylpropanolamine and phentermine. Examples of serotonergic agents includes fenfluramine, dexfenfluramine, and fluoxetine. One nonlimiting preferred example of an adrenergic/serotonergic agent is sibutramine.

In some embodiments, a method comprises electrically stimulating the splanchnic nerve and administering a weight loss drug comprising a thermogenic agent. Thermogenic agents enhance thermogenesis and ultimately aid in weight loss. In some embodiments, a weight loss drug comprises one or more thermogenic agents. In some embodiments, the one or more thermogenic agents may be a sympathomimetic such as ephedrine, caffeine, or salicin. In other embodiments the thermogenic agent is a selective beta 3-adrenergic agonist.

In some embodiments, a method comprises electrically stimulating the splanchnic nerve and administering a weight loss drug comprising a digestive inhibitor. In some embodiments, the digestive inhibitor is a lipase inhibitor. Digestive inhibitors may reduce fat absorption up to about 50% of fat intake, including about 30%, 15% and about 5% reduction of fat absorption. One preferred nonlimiting example of a digestive inhibitor is the lipase inhibitor tetrahydrolipostatin (Orlistat, Xenical).

In some embodiments, a method comprises electrically stimulating the splanchnic nerve and administering a weight loss drug, wherein the weight loss drug is a cannabinoid receptor antagonist. Some cannabinoid system antagonists work by blocking the CB1 receptor, which plays a role in the regulation of food intake and energy expenditure. In some embodiments, a cannabinoid antagonist selectively targets and blocks the CB1 receptors, helping normalize the over-activation of the endocannabinoid system. One nonlimiting preferred example of a cannabinoid antagonist is Rimonabant.

Some methods of reducing body weight or controlling the body weight of the mammal comprise electrically stimulating the splanchnic nerve and administering a drug which agonizes or antagonizes hormones or hormone receptors that regulate food intake. Many hormones are controlled by secretions of the hypothalamus neurons. Thus, control over such secretions may provide an additional control over body weight in combination with the electrical stimulation of a splanchnic nerve of the mammal.

In some embodiments, hormones, hormone agonists, or hormone antagonists may be administered to the mammal in combination with the electrical stimulation of a splanchnic nerve. Some hormones may increase a mammal's appetite for food, increase a mammal's body weight, or reduce a mammal's energy expenditure. Thus, it is preferable to suppress such hormone or the receptor sites of these hormones which increase body weight. In some embodiments, a weight loss drug comprises one or more drugs which suppress the production of Neuropeptide Y (NPY), Orexins, or Gherlin. In other embodiments, a weight loss drug comprises one or more drugs which block the receptor sites of Neuropeptide Y (NPY), Orexins, or Gherlin. Similarly, some embodiments comprise electrically stimulating the splanchnic nerve of a mammal and suppressing or blocking the receptor sites of the catecholamines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. One nonlimiting example is a method comprising electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve and administering serotonin in a pharmaceutically effective amount to reduce the secretion of NPY, thereby decreasing body weight, decreasing food intake, or increasing satiety of the mammal. Another nonlimiting example is a method comprising electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve and administering a weight loss drug which would effectively block one or more orexin receptors (OX1R or OX2R) and further reduce body weight, by reducing food intake and/or suppressing the appetite of the mammal.

In some embodiments, it may be advantageous to further reduce weight loss by electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve and administering a weight loss drug that is configured to agonize hormone or hormone receptors that decrease food intake, decrease body weight, or increase energy expenditure. In some embodiments, a weight loss drug comprises hormone stimulators which stimulate the production of a hormone selected from the group consisting of corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF), bombesin, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), serotonin, and cholecystokinin. In some embodiments, a weight loss drug comprises hormone stimulators which stimulate the production of a hormone selected from Peptide YY (PYY) (3-36), amylin, and melanocortins such as an alpha-melanocyte (alpha-MSH). In all of these embodiments, the weight loss drug may comprise the hormone itself thus increasing the levels of hormones in the mammal. This may result in decreased body weight, food intake, or energy expenditure.

Leptin has been established over the past decade as an adipocyte hormone crucial to the regulation of energy intake and metabolism. Reduction in leptin levels in rodents is associated with increased food intake and body weight. Because leptin is secreted by adipose tissue, leptin may also play a role as the signal to the central nervous system and periphery the level of adiposity of the body. This adiposity level may be defended against such that deviations in adiposity level may be returned to a previous level through changes in food intake and energy expenditure.

In some embodiments, a method comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve of a mammal and administering a weight loss drug comprising leptin or a leptin stimulator in a pharmaceutically effective amount to reduce body weight by suppressing food intake or increasing metabolic rate and energy expenditure. Another embodiment comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve of a mammal and administering a weight loss drug comprising adiponectin or an adiponectin stimulator in a pharmaceutically effective amount to reduce body weight by increasing energy expenditure and/or reducing food intake.

The therapy described herein combines electrical stimulation therapy with other pharmaceutical or surgical therapies to treat obesity, diabetes, as well as co-morbidities thereof. Combinations of these therapies include combinations where therapies are given in parallel, in series, or combinations thereof. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that surprising benefits can be obtained by combining these therapies.

The stimulation patterns described herein contain stimulation time-periods and no stimulation time-periods (see FIG. 27.). Such stimulation patterns can be used to reduce central fat (visceral fat and/or subcutaneous fat) while maintaining lean muscle mass. These stimulation patters can then be combined with other weight loss therapies to increase the reduction of overall fat. When used in combination, the overall impact is that the subject can lose more central fat than compared to the use of the non-stimulation therapy alone. Central fat loss has been associated with the increase risk of, or severity of diabetes, as well as with heart disease, back pain and the like.

In some examples, the electrical stimulation therapy provides weight loss that is at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90% or greater attributable to loss in fat (i.e., with reference to the amount of total body fat lost). Methods of determining fat loss include circumference measurements, DEXA, CT scans and the like. When combined with other weight loss therapies, there will be an increase in central fat loss compared to the use of the other weight loss therapy alone. For example, there will be at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90% or greater loss in central fat compared to the use of the additional therapy alone.

The use of therapeutically effective amounts of pharmaceuticals to aid weight loss can cause unwanted side effects. For example, pharmaceuticals can cause sleep disturbances, headaches, nausea, increased/decreased energy, depression, or combinations thereof. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that therapeutically effective amounts of pharmaceuticals vary depending upon the pharmaceutical and the individual subject's physiology. Through the combination of using stimulation and a pharmaceutical, less of the pharmaceutical can be used. This can lessen the severity of the side effects from the pharmaceutical, while still obtaining a substantially similar reduction in net weight loss. For example, in combination with the stimulation pattern, less that 90%, 85%, 80%, 70% 65%, 60%, 55%, or 50% of the normally prescribed amount used is determined by comparing the amount of pharmaceutical that would normally be suggested by the manufacturer for delivery of one month of treatment.

When used in combination with pharmaceutical therapies, the stimulation pattern can be varied to a greater degree than when the stimulation pattern is delivered as a mono-therapeutic, thus making it more difficult for the body to habituate to the stimulation pattern. The pharmaceutical can be taken during a no stimulation time-period (i.e., in series) or can be delivered during a stimulation period (i.e., in parallel). The pharmaceutical dosage can be increased during a minimal stimulation period, such as a sub-threshold period, and then decreased during periods of supra-threshold stimulation. The overall therapeutic regime can include several months of treatment during which the therapies are delivered in parallel during certain times and in series during other times. Through the combination of stimulation and other weight loss treatments, therapeutic regimes are more flexible and weight loss can be continued for longer periods of time and/or greater efficacy.

CRP is a blood plasma protein secreted by the liver. CRP is released into blood circulation during acute phase of an inflammatory process. It is elevated in diseases and conditions associated with inflammation including obesity and related comorbidities, cardiovascular disease, and atherosclerosis. By lowering blood plasma levels of CRP through splanchnic nerve stimulation, there may be a reduction in risk of mortality and morbidity related to these diseases and conditions. Further, splanchnic nerve stimulation may be administered to reduce levels of obesity elevated CRP to decrease the risk for development of metabolic syndrome.

As discussed above, increases in leptin typically result in increase energy expenditure and decrease food intake. However, the majority of obese individuals have elevated levels of leptin. In addition, exogenously administered leptin administered to an obese mammal does not always result in weight loss. Without wishing to be bound to any particular theory, some research has suggested that CRP binds to leptin, inhibits leptin signaling, and attenuates its biological function, thereby producing a leptin resistance in the mammal. See Chen et al., Induction of Leptin Resistance Through Direct Interaction of C-reactive Protein With Leptin, Nature Medicine 12 (4), 425 (April 2006), which is hereby incorporated in its entirety. Also, leptin may stimulate CRP release and thereby preventing its own action.

We have found that electrical stimulation of a splanchnic nerve can substantially lower circulating levels of CRP (FIG. 38). In some embodiments, a method comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a manner configured to lower the level of C-Reactive Protein (CRP) in a body fluid. In other embodiments, a method of increasing the fraction of leptin available to act centrally and peripherally at its receptor and restoring the beneficial effects of leptin on food intake, energy expenditure, and ultimately body weight and body composition, comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a manner configured to lower the level of CRP in a body fluid.

In a study, the greater splanchnic nerves of 5 dogs over a 90 day period were stimulated. A group of 5 dogs implanted with stimulators that were not activated served as the control. In treated dogs, a ramp stimulation cycle between 0.25 mAmps to 3.5 mAmps at a pulse with of 500 microseconds was performed over the 90 day period. The duty cycle was approximately 50%.

Blood draws taken at 30, 60, and 90 days showed a marked reduction in CRP levels compared to baseline and control. In addition, DEXA scans showed a reduction in fat mass and percent body fat relative to controls (FIGS. 39, 40). The reduction in fat mass may have been contributed to by an improvement in leptin sensitivity through the reduction of CRP and binding by CRP to leptin.

In other embodiments, a method of preventing or treating an eating disorder comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal to reduce a level of serum CRP, and repeating the splanchnic nerve stimulation to maintain the reduced level of serum CRP. The method is not limited to reducing the level of CRP to any specific serum CRP level, as any reduction, as well as maintaining any reduction, is beneficial to the mammal to which the treatment is applied. In some embodiments, the serum CRP may be reduced to a level less than 0.11 mg/dL, and repeated splanchnic nerve stimulation maintains the reduced level of CRP at less than 0.11 mg/dL. In some embodiments, a method of preventing or treating an eating disorder comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal until CRP is present in a body fluid at a level less than 0.8 mg/dL, and repeating splanchnic nerve stimulation in a manner to maintain the level of CRP within the range between 0.01 and 0.11 mg/dL.

Unless otherwise indicated, the term “body fluid” is a broad term and is used in its ordinary sense and includes, without limitation, wherein the context permits, blood, serum and plasma.

Another method comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal to substantially reduce or control the CRP level in a body fluid of the mammal, and administering exogenous leptin in a dose configured to produce weight loss or control body weight in the mammal. Other embodiments, may also comprises electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal to substantially reduce or control the CRP level in a body of the mammal and administering one or more weight loss drugs as described above to produce weight loss or control body weight in the mammal.

In embodiments, the weight loss composition may be administered prior to, during, or after the electrical stimulation of the splanchnic nerve of the mammal. The method of administering a weight loss drug may be accomplished by any means. In some embodiments, the weight loss drug is administered by oral dosages. It may be accomplished by ingestion of a tablet, hard or soft capsules, powder, pill, drink, or lozenges. In other embodiments, the weight loss drug may be injected. In some embodiments, a weight loss drug is injected directly into the hypothalamus. In some embodiment, the weight loss drug is injected into the central or lateral ventricles.

Some embodiments comprising the electrical stimulation of splanchnic nerve in combination with one or more other eating disorder treatment modalities improve comorbidities, such as lipid profile or diabetes, beyond what is achievable with any of the treatments alone. Thus, the treatments can be applied to persons suffering from an eating disorder and another condition such as diabetes or elevated lipid profiles. In some embodiments, the methods as described herein result in a reduction of plasma concentrations of Lp(a) and/or other LDL lipoproteins in combination in a reduction of weight. In some embodiments, the methods as described herein result in reduced average blood glucose levels in a combination with the reduction of weight.

Electrical stimulation of one or more splanchnic nerves when used in combination with other eating disorder treatment modalities may occur in any way as described herein. For example, a splanchnic nerve can be stimulated by placing an electrode in proximity to the a splanchnic nerve in a mammal above the diaphragm, and electrically activating the splanchnic nerve. Another example of a method comprises electrically stimulation a splanchnic nerve at different intervals and intensities and administrating a weight loss composition in a pharmaceutically effective amount to reduce weight loss.

One nonlimiting example comprises providing a first electrical signal to a splanchnic nerve during a first portion of a first stimulation time period, said first electrical signal having a stimulation intensity; thereafter providing a first plurality of additional electrical signals during a first plurality of additional portions of a first stimulation time period, each of said signals having a stimulation intensity that is greater than the stimulation intensity of the preceding signal; ceasing providing electrical signals to the nerve during a first no-stimulation period; providing a second electrical signal to the splanchnic nerve during a first portion of a second stimulation time period, said second electrical signal having a stimulation intensity, thereafter providing a second plurality of additional electrical signals during a second plurality of additional portions of a second stimulation time period, each of said signals having a stimulation intensity that is greater than the stimulation intensity of the preceding signal; ceasing providing electrical signals to the nerve during a second no-stimulation period; and administering a weight loss drug in a pharmaceutically effective amount to produce weight loss in the mammal.

For purposes of summarizing the invention, certain aspects, advantages, and novel features of the invention have been described herein. It is to be understood that not necessarily all such advantages may be achieved in accordance with any particular embodiment of the invention. Thus, the invention may be embodied or carried out in a manner that achieves or optimizes one advantage or group of advantages as taught herein without necessarily achieving other advantages as may be taught or suggested herein.

While certain aspects and embodiments of the invention have been described, these have been presented by way of example only, and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Indeed, the novel methods and systems described herein may be embodied in a variety of other forms without departing from the spirit thereof. The accompanying claims and their equivalents are intended to cover such forms or modifications as would fall within the scope and spirit of the invention. 

1. A method of maintaining lean muscle mass during weight loss comprising: administering a weight loss therapy; and electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve of a mammal, wherein the mammal losses weight and substantially maintains lean muscle mass.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein at least 5% of the net weight loss is attributable to loss in central fat.
 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the weight loss therapy is a pharmaceutical.
 4. The method according to claim 3, wherein less than 50% of the normally prescribed dosage of the pharmaceutical is administered.
 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the pharmaceutical is administered in parallel with the electrical stimulation.
 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the pharmaceutical is administered in series with the electrical stimulation.
 7. A method of preventing or treating an eating disorder in a mammal comprising: electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve of the mammal; and administering a weight loss composition in a pharmaceutically effective amount to produce weight loss in the mammal.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the weight loss composition comprises an appetite suppressant.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the appetite suppressant is one or more selected from the group consisting of a noradrenergic agent, a serotonergic agent, and an adrenergic/serotonergic agent.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the appetite suppressant is one or more selected from the group consisting of phenylpropanolamine, phentermine, fenfluramine, dexfenfluramine, fluoxetine, sibutramine.
 11. The method of claim 7, wherein the weight loss composition comprises a thermogenic agent.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the thermogenic agent is one or more selected from the group consisting of a sympathomimetic and a selective Beta 3-adrenergic agonist.
 13. The method of claim 7, wherein the weight loss composition comprises a digestive inhibitor.
 14. The method of claim 7, wherein the digestive inhibitor is a lipase inhibitor.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the lipase inhibitor is tetrahydrolipostatin.
 16. The method of claim 7, wherein the weight loss composition comprises a cannabinoid antagonist.
 17. The method of claim 7, wherein the weight loss composition comprises an anatagonist of a hormone or hormone receptor that increases food intake.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the hormone is one or more selected from the group consisting of Neuropeptide Y, Orexins, and Ghrelin.
 19. The method of claim 7, wherein the weight loss composition comprises an agonist of a hormone or hormone receptor that decreases food intake.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the hormone is one or more selected from the group consisting of Glucagon-like-peptide 1, Cholecystokinin, Peptide YY (3-36), amylin, and melanocortins.
 21. The method of claim 7, wherein the weight loss composition comprises one or more selected from leptin, a leptin stimulator, adiponectin, and an adiponectin stimulator.
 22. The method of claim 7, wherein the weight loss composition comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of at least one appetite suppressant, at least one digestive inhibitor, at least one cannabinoid antagonist, at least one anatagonist of a hormone or hormone receptor that increases body weight, and at least one agonist of a hormone or hormone receptor that decreases body weight.
 23. The method of claim 7, further comprising performing a surgical procedure configured to produce weight loss in the mammal.
 24. A method of treating or prevent an eating disorder comprising: electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve of a mammal; and performing a surgical procedure configured to produce weight loss in the mammal.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the surgical procedure comprises a bypass.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the surgical procedure comprises one or more selected the group consisting of jejuno-illeo bypass and a roux-en-Y gastric bypass.
 27. The method of claim 24, wherein the surgical procedure comprises a gastric restrictive procedure.
 28. The method of claim 24, wherein the gastric restrictive procedure comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of gastric banding, adjustable gastric banding, gastric stapling, and vertical banded gastroplasty.
 29. The method of claim 24, wherein the surgical procedure comprises a partial biliopancreatic diversion.
 30. The method of claim 24, wherein the surgical procedure comprises implanting a gastric displacement device.
 31. The method of claim 24, wherein the gastric displacement device is a gastric balloon.
 32. A method of preventing or treating an eating disorder comprising: electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal to reduce a level of serum CRP in the mammal; and repeating splanchnic nerve stimulation in a manner to maintain a reduced level of CRP.
 33. A method of preventing or treating an eating disorder comprising: electrically stimulating a splanchnic nerve in a mammal to reduce a level of serum CRP in the mammal; and administering a weight loss drug in a dose configured to produce weight loss in the mammal.
 34. The method of claim 33, wherein the step of administering a weight loss drug comprises administering exogenous leptin to the mammal.
 35. The method of claim 33, wherein the administering of the weight loss drug is configured to maintain a reduced level of serum CRP. 